Method of determining analyte concentration in a sample using infrared transmission data

ABSTRACT

A method determines an analyte concentration in a sample. The sample includes the analyte and a substance. The method includes providing absorption data of the sample. The method further includes providing reference absorption data of the substance. The method further includes calculating a substance contribution of the absorption data. The method further includes subtracting the substance contribution from the absorption data, thereby providing corrected absorption data substantially free of a contribution from the substance.

CLAIM OF PRIORITY

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No.60/463,133, filed Apr. 15, 2003, which is hereby incorporated herein inits entirety by this reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The disclosure herein relates generally to methods for determining thecomposition of a material sample by analyzing electromagnetic energythat has been passed through or emitted from the material sample.

2. Description of the Related Art

A large number of people suffer from diabetes and other conditions inwhich the natural regulation of blood glucose levels is impaired. Forthese people, monitoring blood glucose level is an important part ofhealth maintenance, and a variety of techniques and instruments havebeen developed to periodically measure glucose levels in blood samplesfor this purpose.

Most of these methods involve a spectroscopic measurement, where theabsorption of electromagnetic energy of a blood sample is measured andcorrelated to glucose concentration. In some cases, the electromagneticenergy is at optical wavelengths. In these systems, a chemical reagentis typically added to the blood sample which chemically reacts with theglucose and produces an absorption in the optical band dependent on theamount of glucose present and which participates in the reaction. Inaddition to the expense of manufacturing such reagent based systems,these assays may be interfered with by other blood constituents thatreduce their accuracy and reproducibility.

Although reagent-based optical assays have been successfully producedand commercialized, blood absorption characteristics in the infrared(IR) region of the electromagnetic spectrum have been recently exploredto measure blood glucose concentrations. Using IR absorptioncharacteristics has advantages over reagent-based optical measurementssince glucose exhibits significant absorption in several IR wavelengthregions without the need to perform a reaction with another chemicalspecies that must be added to the blood sample.

However, other chemical species including water, alanine, albumin,hemoglobin, urea, lactate and others also absorb strongly at several IRband frequencies. Some of these constituents are present in the blood atconcentrations of 50 or 100 times or more than the glucoseconcentration. Because the sample absorption at any given wavelength isa sum of the absorptions of each component at that wavelength, IRabsorption measurements are complicated by the presence of these othercomponents. Consequently, methods that allow effective compensation andadjustments to measured IR absorption for the presence of other bloodcomponents would be beneficial to provide a low cost and accurate systemfor diabetics and others in need of periodic glucose monitoring.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In certain embodiments, a method determines an analyte concentration ina sample. The sample comprises the analyte and a substance. The methodcomprises providing absorption data of the sample. The method furthercomprises providing reference absorption data of the substance. Themethod further comprises calculating a substance contribution of theabsorption data. The method further comprises subtracting the substancecontribution from the absorption data, thereby providing correctedabsorption data substantially free of a contribution from the substance.

In certain embodiments, a method provides measurements of constituentsin a sample using infrared (IR) spectroscopy. The method comprisesproviding absorption data of the sample. The method further comprisescorrecting the absorption data for a non-analyte contribution to theabsorption data.

In certain embodiments, a method uses infrared (IR) spectroscopy todetermine a ratio of an analyte volume to the total volume of a sample.The sample comprises the analyte, a first substance, and a secondsubstance. The method comprises providing absorption data from thesample for a first set of wavelengths in a wavelength region where afirst-substance absorption dominates. The method further comprisescalculating a first quantity equal to the product of a first-substancevolume concentration and a path length of the sample. The method furthercomprises providing absorption data from the sample for a second set ofwavelengths in a wavelength region where the first-substance absorptionand a second-substance absorption dominate. The method further comprisescalculating a second quantity equal to the product of a second-substancevolume concentration and the path length of the sample. The methodfurther comprises providing absorption data from the sample for a thirdset of wavelengths in a wavelength region where the first-substanceabsorption, the second-substance absorption, and an analyte absorptiondominate. The method further comprises calculating a third quantityequal to the product of an analyte volume concentration and the pathlength of the sample. The method further comprises calculating a ratioof the third quantity divided by the sum of the first quantity and thesecond quantity.

In certain embodiments, a method determines non-analyte contributions toabsorption data from a sample. The method comprises inputtingtransmission measurements, filter parameters, and water spectralproperties. The method further comprises calculating optical densitiesand filter constants. The method further comprises estimating non-linearfilter terms and cuvette distortion matrix elements. The method furthercomprises solving for a temperature change as a function of the pathlength. The method further comprises calculating new estimates ofabsorption and non-linear terms.

In certain embodiments, a method determines non-analyte contributions toabsorption data from a sample. The method comprises inputtingtransmission measurements, filter parameters, and water spectralproperties. The method further comprises calculating optical densitiesand filter constants. The method further comprises estimating non-linearfilter terms and cuvette distortion matrix elements. The method furthercomprises solving for a temperature change as a function of the pathlength. The method further comprises calculating new estimates ofabsorption and non-linear terms.

In certain embodiments, a method evaluates analyte concentration errorsin absorption data from a sample. The method comprises calculatingtransmission and optical densities at four wavelengths for awater-filled cuvette. The four wavelengths comprise two wavelengthsdominated by absorption by water, an analyte reference wavelength, and ameasurement wavelength. The method further comprises using the opticaldensities to determine the water content at the analyte referencewavelength and the measurement wavelength. The method further comprisescalculating expected optical density values at the analyte referencewavelength and the measurement wavelength. The method further comprisescalculating residuals between the exact and calculated optical densitiesat the analyte reference wavelength and the measurement wavelength. Themethod further comprises determining the analyte concentration error bycalculating the analyte concentration consistent with the differencebetween the residuals at the analyte reference wavelength and themeasurement wavelength.

For purposes of summarizing the invention, certain aspects, advantagesand novel features of the invention have been described herein above. Itis to be understood, however, that not necessarily all such advantagesmay be achieved in accordance with any particular embodiment of theinvention. Thus, the invention may be embodied or carried out in amanner that achieves or optimizes one advantage or group of advantagesas taught herein without necessarily achieving other advantages as maybe taught or suggested herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of one embodiment of an analytedetection system.

FIG. 2 is a schematic illustration of another embodiment of the analytedetection system.

FIG. 3 is a plan view of one embodiment of a filter wheel suitable foruse in the analyte detection system depicted in FIG. 2.

FIG. 4 is a partial sectional view of another embodiment of an analytedetection system.

FIG. 5 is a detailed sectional view of a sample detector of the analytedetection system illustrated in FIG. 4.

FIG. 6 is a detailed sectional view of a reference detector of theanalyte detection system illustrated in FIG. 4.

FIG. 7 is a flowchart of one embodiment of a method of operation ofvarious embodiments of the analyte detection system.

FIG. 8 is a plan view of one embodiment of a sample element suitable foruse in combination with various embodiments of the analyte detectionsystem.

FIG. 9 is a side elevation view of the sample element illustrated inFIG. 8.

FIG. 10 is an exploded view of the sample element illustrated in FIG. 8.

FIG. 11 is a cross-sectional view of one embodiment of a sample elementconfigured for analysis of a sample at two separate pathlengths.

FIG. 12 is a cross-sectional view of the sample element of FIG. 11, asemployed in an alternative method of analysis.

FIG. 13 is a cross-sectional view of one embodiment of an analytedetection system configured for changing an optical pathlength of asample element.

FIG. 14 is a cross-sectional view of another embodiment of an analytedetection system configured for changing an optical pathlength of asample element.

FIG. 15 is a cross-sectional view of another embodiment of an analytedetection system configured for changing an optical pathlength of asample element.

FIG. 16 is a cross-sectional view of the analyte detection system ofFIG. 15, illustrating compression and expansion of a sample elementemployed therewith.

FIG. 17 is a top plan view of another embodiment of a sample elementconfigured for analysis of a sample at two separate pathlengths.

FIG. 18 is a sectional view of the sample element of FIG. 17.

FIG. 19 is a bottom plan view of another embodiment of a sample elementconfigured for analysis of a sample at two separate pathlengths.

FIG. 20 is a sectional view of the sample element of FIG. 19.

FIG. 21 is an end sectional view of another embodiment of a sampleelement.

FIG. 22 schematically illustrates the major constituents of threecomponents mixed to produce blood samples.

FIG. 23 schematically illustrates a water-filled non-parallel cuvetteilluminated with parallel light that has passed through an opticalfilter with known bandwidth and filter shape.

FIG. 24 illustrates the absorption of water in an exemplary waterregion.

FIG. 25 illustrates an exemplary OD spectrum from a blood sampleoverlaid with a water reference spectrum in the wavelength range of 4microns to 11 microns.

FIG. 26 illustrates an exemplary water OD spectrum showing fourwavelengths used for determining the individual effects of variousinstrument factors.

FIG. 27 schematically illustrates a model of the cuvette shape.

FIGS. 28A and 28B are graphs of the uncorrected and corrected glucoseerror, respectively, as a function of cuvette shape parameters for afirst set of wavelengths.

FIG. 28C is a graph of the distortion parameter corresponding to FIGS.28A and 28B.

FIG. 28D is a graph of the absorption spectrum with the first set ofwavelengths used in the calculation denoted by vertical lines.

FIGS. 29A and 29B are graphs of the uncorrected and corrected glucoseerror, respectively, as a function of cuvette shape parameters for afirst set of wavelengths.

FIG. 29C is a graph of the distortion parameter corresponding to FIGS.29A and 29B.

FIG. 29D is a graph of the absorption spectrum with the first set ofwavelengths used in the calculation denoted by vertical lines.

FIGS. 30A and 30B are graphs of the uncorrected and corrected glucoseerror, respectively, as a function of path length for different filterbandwidths for a first set of wavelengths.

FIG. 30C is a graph of the absorption spectrum with the first set ofwavelengths used in the calculation denoted by vertical lines.

FIGS. 31A and 31B are graphs of the uncorrected and corrected glucoseerror, respectively, as a function of path length for different filterbandwidths for a second set of wavelengths.

FIG. 31C is a graph of the absorption spectrum with the second set ofwavelengths used in the calculation denoted by vertical lines.

FIGS. 32A and 32B are graphs of the uncorrected and corrected glucoseerror, respectively, as a function of water temperature variation fromnominal for a first set of wavelengths.

FIG. 32C is a graph of the absorption spectrum with the first set ofwavelengths used in the calculation denoted by vertical lines.

FIGS. 33A and 33B are graphs of the uncorrected and corrected glucoseerror, respectively, as a function of water temperature variation fromnominal for a second set of wavelengths.

FIG. 33C is a graph of the absorption spectrum with the second set ofwavelengths used in the calculation denoted by vertical lines.

FIGS. 34A and 34B are graphs of the uncorrected and corrected glucoseerror, respectively, as a function of filter temperature variation fromnominal for a first set of wavelengths.

FIG. 34C is a graph of the absorption spectrum with the first set ofwavelengths used in the calculation denoted by vertical lines.

FIGS. 35A and 35B are graphs of the uncorrected and corrected glucoseerror, respectively, as a function of filter temperature variation fromnominal for a second set of wavelengths.

FIG. 35C is a graph of the absorption spectrum with the second set ofwavelengths used in the calculation denoted by vertical lines.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT

Although certain preferred embodiments and examples are disclosed below,it will be understood by those skilled in the art that the inventionextends beyond the specifically disclosed embodiments to otheralternative embodiments and/or uses of the invention and obviousmodifications and equivalents thereof. Thus it is intended that thescope of the invention herein disclosed should not be limited by theparticular disclosed embodiments described below. In any method orprocess disclosed herein, the acts or operations making up themethod/process may be performed in any suitable sequence, and are notnecessarily limited to any particular disclosed sequence. For purposesof contrasting various embodiments with the prior art, certain aspectsand advantages of these embodiments are described where appropriateherein. Of course, it is to be understood that not necessarily all suchaspects or advantages may be achieved in accordance with any particularembodiment. Thus, for example, it should be recognized that the variousembodiments may be carried out in a manner that achieves or optimizesone advantage or group of advantages as taught herein withoutnecessarily achieving other aspects or advantages as may be taught orsuggested herein.

Section I below discloses various embodiments of an analyte detectionsystem that may be used to detect the concentration of one or moreanalytes in a material sample. Section II discloses various embodimentsof a cuvette or sample element which are suitable for use with theembodiments of the analyte detection system discussed in Section I. Thedisclosed embodiments of the sample element are configured to support orcontain a material sample for analysis by the analyte detection system.In Section III, there are disclosed a number of methods forsample-element referencing, which generally comprises compensating forthe effects of the sample element itself on the measurement of analyteconcentration. Any one or combination of the methods disclosed inSection III may be executed wholly or partly by appropriate processinghardware in the analyte detection system to support computation of theconcentration of the analyte(s) of interest in the sample. Section IIIalso discloses further variations of the analyte detection system andsample element, which are adapted for use in practicing the disclosedmethods of sample-element referencing.

Section IV below discusses a number of computational methods oralgorithms which may be used to calculate the concentration of theanalyte(s) of interest in the sample, and/or to compute or estimateother measures that may be used in support of calculations of analyteconcentrations. Any one or combination of the algorithms disclosed inSection IV may be executed by appropriate processing hardware in theanalyte detection system to compute the concentration of the analyte(s)of interest in the sample. Section V discusses a number of measures ofthe performance of certain embodiments of the analyte detection system.

I. ANALYTE DETECTION SYSTEM

FIG. 1 is a schematic view of one embodiment of an analyte detectionsystem 10. The detection system 10 is particularly suited for detectingthe concentration of one or more analytes in a material sample S, bydetecting energy transmitted through the sample, as will be discussed infurther detail below.

The detection system 10 comprises an energy source 20 disposed along amajor axis X of the system 10. When activated, the energy source 20generates an energy beam E which advances from the energy source 20along the major axis X. In one embodiment, the energy source 20comprises an infrared source and the energy beam E comprises an infraredenergy beam.

The energy beam E passes through a filter 25, also situated on the majoraxis X, before reaching a sample element or cuvette 120, which supportsor contains the material sample S. After passing through the sampleelement 120 and the sample S, the energy beam E reaches a detector 145.

With further reference to FIG. 1, the detector 145 responds to radiationincident thereon by generating an electrical signal and passing thesignal to a processor 180 for analysis. Based on the signal(s) passed toit by the detector 145, the processor computes the concentration of theanalyte(s) of interest in the sample S, and/or theabsorbance/transmittance characteristics of the sample S at one or morewavelengths or wavelength bands employed to analyze the sample. Theprocessor 180 computes the concentration(s), absorbance(s),transmittance(s), etc. by executing a data processing algorithm orprogram instructions residing within memory 185 accessible by theprocessor 180.

In the embodiment shown in FIG. 1, the filter 25 may comprise avarying-passband filter, to facilitate changing, over time and/or duringa measurement taken with the detection system 10, the wavelength orwavelength band of the energy beam E that may pass the filter 25 for usein analyzing the sample S. Some examples of a varying-passband filterusable with the detection system 10 include, but are not limited to, afilter wheel (discussed in further detail below), electronically tunablefilter, Fabry-Perot interferometer, or any other suitablevarying-passband filter.

When the energy beam E is filtered with a varying-passband filter, theabsorption/transmittance characteristics of the sample S can be analyzedat a number of wavelengths or wavelength bands in a separate, sequentialmanner. As an example, assume that it is desired to analyze the sample Sat four separate wavelengths (Wavelength 1 through Wavelength 4). Thevarying-passband filter is first operated or tuned to permit the energybeam E to pass at Wavelength 1, while substantially blocking the beam Eat most or all other wavelengths to which the detector 145 is sensitive(including Wavelengths 2-4). The absorption/transmittance properties ofthe sample S are then measured at Wavelength 1, based on the beam E thatpasses through the sample S and reaches the detector 145. Thevarying-passband filter is then operated or tuned to permit the energybeam E to pass at Wavelength 2, while substantially blocking otherwavelengths as discussed above; the sample S is then analyzed atWavelength 2 as was done at Wavelength 1. This process is repeated untilall of the wavelengths of interest have been employed to analyze thesample S. The collected absorption/transmittance data can then beanalyzed by the processor 180 to determine the concentration of theanalyte(s) of interest in the material sample S.

By analyzing the sample S at each wavelength or wavelength band in thisseparate, sequential fashion, greater precision can be attained becausethe noise, interference, etc. otherwise caused by the detection ofwavelengths other than the wavelength of immediate interest, isminimized. However, any other suitable detection methodology may be usedwith the detection system 10, whether or not the system 10 includes avarying-passband filter.

Although the use of a varying-passband filter offers certain advantagesas discussed above, a fixed-passband filter may be used as analternative filter 25, to permit a selected wavelength or wavelengthband to pass through the sample S for analysis thereof.

As used herein, the term “material sample” (or, alternatively, “sample”)is a broad term and is used in its ordinary sense and includes, withoutlimitation, any collection of material which is suitable for analysis bythe analyte detection system 10. For example, the material sample S maycomprise whole blood, blood components (e.g., plasma or serum),interstitial fluid, intercellular fluid, saliva, urine, sweat and/orother organic or inorganic materials, or derivatives of any of thesematerials. In one embodiment, whole blood or blood components may bedrawn from a patient's capillaries. As used herein, the term “analyte”is a broad term and is used in its ordinary sense and includes, withoutlimitation, any chemical species the presence or concentration of whichis sought in the material sample S by the analyte detection system 10.For example, the analyte(s) which may be detected by the analytedetection system 10 include but not are limited to glucose, ethanol,insulin, water, carbon dioxide, blood oxygen, cholesterol, bilirubin,ketones, fatty acids, lipoproteins, albumin, urea, creatinine, whiteblood cells, red blood cells, hemoglobin, oxygenated hemoglobin,carboxyhemoglobin, organic molecules, inorganic molecules,pharmaceuticals, cytochrome, various proteins and chromophores,microcalcifications, electrolytes, sodium, potassium, chloride,bicarbonate, and hormones.

FIG. 2 depicts another embodiment of the analyte detection system 10,which may be generally similar to the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 1,except as further detailed below. Where possible, similar elements areidentified with identical reference numerals in the depiction of theembodiments of FIGS. 1 and 2.

The detection system 10 shown in FIG. 2 includes a collimator 30 throughwhich the energy beam E passes before reaching a primary filter 40disposed downstream of a wide end 36 of the collimator 30. The primaryfilter 40 is aligned with the source 20 and collimator 30 on the majoraxis X and is preferably configured to operate as a broadband filter,allowing only a selected band, e.g., between about 2.5 μm and about 12.5μm, of wavelengths emitted by the source 20 to pass therethrough, asdiscussed below. In one embodiment, the energy source 20 comprises aninfrared source and the energy beam E comprises an infrared energy beam.One suitable energy source 20 is the TOMA TECH™ IR-50 available fromHawkEye Technologies of Milford, Conn.

With further reference to FIG. 2, the primary filter 40 is mounted in amask 44 so that only those portions of the energy beam E which areincident on the primary filter 40 can pass the plane of the mask-primaryfilter assembly. The primary filter 40 is generally centered on andoriented orthogonal to the major axis X and is preferably circular (in aplane orthogonal to the major axis X) with a diameter of about 8 mm. Ofcourse, any other suitable size or shape may be employed. As discussedabove, the primary filter 40 preferably operates as a broadband filter.In the illustrated embodiment, the primary filter 40 preferably allowsonly energy wavelengths between about 4 μm and about 11 μm to passtherethrough. However, other ranges of wavelengths can be selected. Theprimary filter 40 advantageously reduces the filtering burden ofsecondary filter(s) 60 disposed downstream of the primary filter 40 andimproves the rejection of electromagnetic radiation having a wavelengthoutside of the desired wavelength band. Additionally, the primary filter40 can help minimize the heating of the secondary filter(s) 60 by theenergy beam E passing therethrough. Despite these advantages, theprimary filter 40 and/or mask 44 may be omitted in alternativeembodiments of the system 10 shown in FIG. 2.

The primary filter 40 is preferably configured to substantially maintainits operating characteristics (center wavelength, passband width) wheresome or all of the energy beam E deviates from normal incidence by acone angle of up to about twelve degrees relative to the major axis X.In further embodiments, this cone angle may be up to about 15 degrees or20 degrees. The primary filter 40 may be said to “substantiallymaintain” its operating characteristics where any changes therein areinsufficient to affect the performance or operation of the detectionsystem 10 in a manner that would raise significant concerns for theuser(s) of the system in the context in which the system 10 is employed.

In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 2, a filter wheel 50 is employedas a varying-passband filter, to selectively position the secondaryfilter(s) 60 on the major axis X and/or in the energy beam E. The filterwheel 50 can therefore selectively tune the wavelength(s) of the energybeam E downstream of the wheel 50. These wavelength(s) vary according tothe characteristics of the secondary filter(s) 60 mounted in the filterwheel 50. The filter wheel 50 positions the secondary filter(s) 60 inthe energy beam E in a “one-at-a-time” fashion to sequentially vary, asdiscussed above, the wavelengths or wavelength bands employed to analyzethe material sample S.

In alternative arrangements, the single primary filter 40 depicted inFIG. 2 may be replaced or supplemented with additional primary filtersmounted on the filter wheel 50 upstream of each of the secondary filters60. As yet another alternative, the primary filter 40 could beimplemented as a primary filter wheel (not shown) to position differentprimary filters on the major axis X at different times during operationof the detection system 10, or as a tunable filter.

The filter wheel 50, in the embodiment depicted in FIG. 3, can comprisea wheel body 52 and a plurality of secondary filters 60 disposed on thebody 52, the center of each filter being equidistant from a rotationalcenter RC of the wheel body. The filter wheel 50 is configured to rotateabout an axis which is (i) parallel to the major axis X and (ii) spacedfrom the major axis X by an orthogonal distance approximately equal tothe distance between the rotational center RC and any of the center(s)of the secondary filter(s) 60. Under this arrangement, rotation of thewheel body 52 advances each of the filters sequentially through themajor axis X, so as to act upon the energy beam E. (However, dependingon the analyte(s) of interest or desired measurement speed, only asubset of the filters on the wheel 50 may be employed in a givenmeasurement run.) In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 3, the wheel body52 is circular; however, any suitable shape, such as oval, square,rectangular, triangular, etc. may be employed. A home position notch 54may be provided to indicate the home position of the wheel 50 to theposition sensor 80.

In one embodiment, the wheel body 52 can be formed from molded plastic,with each of the secondary filters 60 having a 5 mm×5 mm squareconfiguration and a thickness of 1 mm. Each of the filters 60, in thisembodiment of the wheel body 52, is axially aligned with a circularaperture of 4 mm diameter, and the aperture centers define a circle ofabout 1.70 inches diameter, which circle is concentric with the wheelbody 52. The body 52 itself is circular, with an outside diameter of2.00 inches.

Each of the secondary filter(s) 60 is preferably configured to operateas a narrow band filter, allowing only a selected energy wavelength orwavelength band (i.e., a filtered energy beam (Ef) to pass therethrough.As the filter wheel 50 rotates about its rotational center RC, each ofthe secondary filter(s) 60 is, in turn, disposed along the major axis Xfor a selected dwell time corresponding to each of the secondaryfilter(s) 60.

The “dwell time” for a given secondary filter 60 is the time interval,in an individual measurement run of the system 10, during which both ofthe following conditions are true: (i) the filter is disposed on themajor axis X; and (ii) the source 20 is energized. The dwell time for agiven filter may be greater than or equal to the time during which thefilter is disposed on the major axis X during an individual measurementrun. In one embodiment of the analyte detection system 10, the dwelltime corresponding to each of the secondary filter(s) 60 is less thanabout 1 second. However, the secondary filter(s) 60 can have other dwelltimes, and each of the filter(s) 60 may have a different dwell timeduring a given measurement run.

Referring again to FIG. 2, a stepper motor 70 is connected to the filterwheel 50 and is configured to generate a force to rotate the filterwheel 50. Additionally, a position sensor 80 is disposed over a portionof the circumference of the filter wheel 50 and may be configured todetect the angular position of the filter wheel 50 and to generate acorresponding filter wheel position signal, thereby indicating whichfilter is in position on the major axis X. Alternatively, the steppermotor 70 may be configured to track or count its own rotation(s),thereby tracking the angular position of the filter wheel, and pass acorresponding position signal to the processor 180. Two suitableposition sensors are models EE-SPX302-W2A and EE-SPX402-W2A availablefrom Omron Corporation of Kyoto, Japan.

From the secondary filter 60, the filtered energy beam (Ef) passesthrough a beam splitter 100 disposed along the major axis X and having aface 100 a disposed at an included angle θ relative to the major axis X.The splitter 100 preferably separates the filtered energy beam (Ef) intoa sample beam (Es) and a reference beam (Er).

With further reference to FIG. 2, the sample beam (Es) passes nextthrough a first lens 110 aligned with the splitter 100 along the majoraxis X. The first lens 110 is configured to focus the sample beam (Es)generally along the axis X onto the material sample S. The sample S ispreferably disposed in a sample element 120 between a first window 122and a second window 124 of the sample element 120. The sample element120 is further preferably removably disposed in a holder 130, and theholder 130 has a first opening 132 and a second opening 134 configuredfor alignment with the first window 122 and second window 124,respectively. Alternatively, the sample element 120 and sample S may bedisposed on the major axis X without use of the holder 130.

At least a fraction of the sample beam (Es) is transmitted through thesample S and continues onto a second lens 140 disposed along the majoraxis X. The second lens 140 is configured to focus the sample beam (Es)onto a sample detector 150, thus increasing the flux density of thesample beam (Es) incident upon the sample detector 150. The sampledetector 150 is configured to generate a signal corresponding to thedetected sample beam (Es) and to pass the signal to a processor 180, asdiscussed in more detail below.

The reference beam (Er) is directed from the beam splitter 100 to athird lens 160 disposed along a minor axis Y generally orthogonal to themajor axis X. The third lens 160 is configured to focus the referencebeam (Er) onto a reference detector 170, thus increasing the fluxdensity of the reference beam (Er) incident upon the reference detector170. In one embodiment, the lenses 110, 140, 160 may be formed from amaterial which is highly transmissive of infrared radiation, for examplegermanium or silicon. In addition, any of the lenses 110, 140 and 160may be implemented as a system of lenses, depending on the desiredoptical performance. The reference detector 170 is also configured togenerate a signal corresponding to the detected reference beam (Er) andto pass the signal to the processor 180, as discussed in more detailbelow. Except as noted below, the sample and reference detectors 150,170 may be generally similar to the detector 145 illustrated in FIG. 1.Based on signals received from the sample and reference detectors 150,170, the processor 180 computes the concentration(s), absorbance(s),transmittance(s), etc. relating to the sample S by executing a dataprocessing algorithm or program instructions residing within the memory185 accessible by the processor 180.

In further variations of the detection system 10 depicted in FIG. 2, thebeam splitter 100, reference detector 170 and other structures on theminor axis Y may be omitted, especially where the output intensity ofthe source 20 is sufficiently stable to obviate any need to referencethe source intensity in operation of the detection system 10.Furthermore, in any of the embodiments of the analyte detection system10 disclosed herein, the processor 180 and/or memory 185 may residepartially or wholly in a standard personal computer (“PC”) coupled tothe detection system 10.

FIG. 4 depicts a partial cross-sectional view of another embodiment ofan analyte detection system 10, which may be generally similar to any ofthe embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 1-3, except as further detailedbelow. Where possible, similar elements are identified with identicalreference numerals in the depiction of the embodiments of FIGS. 1-4.

The energy source 20 of the embodiment of FIG. 4 preferably comprises anemitter area 22 which is substantially centered on the major axis X. Inone embodiment, the emitter area 22 may be square in shape. However theemitter area 22 can have other suitable shapes, such as rectangular,circular, elliptical, etc. One suitable emitter area 22 is a square ofabout 1.5 mm on a side; of course, any other suitable shape ordimensions may be employed.

The energy source 20 is preferably configured to selectably operate at amodulation frequency between about 1 Hz and 30 Hz and have a peakoperating temperature of between about 1070 degrees Kelvin and 1170degrees Kelvin. Additionally, the source 20 preferably operates with amodulation depth greater than about 80% at all modulation frequencies.The energy source 20 preferably emits electromagnetic radiation in anyof a number of spectral ranges, e.g., within infrared wavelengths; inthe mid-infrared wavelengths; above about 0.8 μm; between about 5.0 μmand about 20.0 μm; and/or between about 5.25 μm and about 12.0 μm.However, in other embodiments, the detection system 10 may employ anenergy source 20 which is unmodulated and/or which emits in wavelengthsfound anywhere from the visible spectrum through the microwave spectrum,for example anywhere from about 0.4 μm to greater than about 100 μm. Instill other embodiments, the energy source 20 can emit electromagneticradiation in wavelengths between about 3.5 μm and about 14 μm, orbetween about 0.8 μm and about 2.5 μm, or between about 2.5 μm and 20μm, or between about 20 μm and about 100 μm, or between about 6.85 μmand about 10.10 μm. In yet other embodiments, the energy source 20 canemit electromagnetic radiation within the radio frequency (RF) range orthe terahertz range. All of the above-recited operating characteristicsare merely exemplary, and the source 20 may have any operatingcharacteristics suitable for use with the analyte detection system 10.

A power supply (not shown) for the energy source 20 is preferablyconfigured to selectably operate with a duty cycle of between about 30%and about 70%. Additionally, the power supply is preferably configuredto selectably operate at a modulation frequency of about 10 Hz, orbetween about 1 Hz and about 30 Hz. The operation of the power supplycan be in the form of a square wave, a sine wave, or any other waveformdefined by a user.

With further reference to FIG. 4, the collimator 30 comprises a tube 30a with one or more highly-reflective inner surfaces 32 which divergefrom a relatively narrow upstream end 34 to a relatively wide downstreamend 36 as they extend downstream, away from the energy source 20. Thenarrow end 34 defines an upstream aperture 34 a which is situatedadjacent the emitter area 22 and permits radiation generated by theemitter area to propagate downstream into the collimator. The wide end36 defines a downstream aperture 36 a. Like the emitter area 22, each ofthe inner surface(s) 32, upstream aperture 34 a and downstream aperture36 a is preferably substantially centered on the major axis X.

As illustrated in FIG. 4, the inner surface(s) 32 of the collimator mayhave a generally curved shape, such as a parabolic, hyperbolic,elliptical or spherical shape. One suitable collimator 30 is a compoundparabolic concentrator (CPC). In one embodiment, the collimator 30 canbe up to about 20 mm in length. In another embodiment, the collimator 30can be up to about 30 mm in length. However, the collimator 30 can haveany length, and the inner surface(s) 32 may have any shape, suitable foruse with the analyte detection system 10.

The inner surfaces 32 of the collimator 30 cause the rays making up theenergy beam E to straighten (i.e., propagate at angles increasinglyparallel to the major axis X) as the beam E advances downstream, so thatthe energy beam E becomes increasingly or substantially cylindrical andoriented substantially parallel to the major axis X. Accordingly, theinner surfaces 32 are highly reflective and minimally absorptive in thewavelengths of interest, such as infrared wavelengths.

The tube 30 a itself may be fabricated from a rigid material such asaluminum, steel, etc., as long as the inner surfaces 32 are coated orotherwise treated to be highly reflective in the wavelengths ofinterest. For example, a polished gold coating may be employed.Preferably, the inner surface(s) 32 of the collimator 30 define acircular cross-section when viewed orthogonal to the major axis X;however, other cross-sectional shapes, such as a square or otherpolygonal shapes, parabolic or elliptical shapes may be employed inalternative embodiments.

As noted above, the filter wheel 50 shown in FIG. 4 comprises aplurality of secondary filters 60 which preferably operate as narrowband filters, each filter allowing only energy of a certain wavelengthor wavelength band to pass therethrough. In one configuration suitablefor detection of glucose in a sample S, the filter wheel 50 comprisestwenty or twenty-two secondary filters 60, each of which is configuredto allow a filtered energy beam (Ef) to travel therethrough with anominal wavelength approximately equal to one of the following: 3 μm,4.06 μm, 4.6 μm, 4.9 μm, 5.25 μm, 6.12 μm, 6.47 μm, 7.98 μm, 8.35 μm,9.65 μm, and 12.2 μm. (Moreover, this set of wavelengths may be employedwith any of the embodiments of the analyte detection system 10 disclosedherein.) Each secondary filter's 60 center wavelength is preferablyequal to the desired nominal wavelength plus or minus about 2%.Additionally, the secondary filters 60 are preferably configured to havea bandwidth of about 0.2 μm, or alternatively equal to the nominalwavelength plus or minus about 2%-10%.

In another embodiment, the filter wheel 50 comprises twenty secondaryfilters 60, each of which is configured to allow a filtered energy beam(Ef) to travel therethrough with a nominal center wavelengths of: 4.275μm, 4.5 μm, 4.7 μm, 5.0 μm, 5.3 μm, 6.056 μm, 7.15 μm, 7.3 μm, 7.55 μm,7.67 μm, 8.06 μm, 8.4 μm, 8.56 μm, 8.87 μm, 9.15 μm, 9.27 μm, 9.48 μm,9.68 μm, 9.82 μm, and 10.06 μm. (This set of wavelengths may also beemployed with or in any of the embodiments of the analyte detectionsystem 10 disclosed herein.) In still another embodiment, the secondaryfilters 60 may conform to any one or combination of the followingspecifications: center wavelength tolerance of ±0.01 μm; half-powerbandwidth tolerance of ±0.01 μm; peak transmission greater than or equalto 75%; cut-on/cut-off slope less than 2%; center-wavelength temperaturecoefficient less than 0.01% per degree Celsius; out of band attenuationgreater than OD 5 from 3 μm to 12 μm; flatness less than 1.0 waves at0.6328 μm; surface quality of E-E per Mil-F-48616; and overall thicknessof about 1 mm.

In still another embodiment, the secondary filters mentioned above mayconform to any one or combination of the following half-power bandwidth(“HPBW”) specifications:

Center Wavelength (μm) HPBW (μm) 4.275 0.05 4.5 0.18 4.7 0.13 5.0 0.15.3 0.13 6.056 0.135 7.15 0.19 7.3 0.19 7.55 0.18 7.67 0.197 8.06 0.38.4 0.2 8.56 0.18 8.87 0.2 9.15 0.15 9.27 0.14 9.48 0.23 9.68 0.3 9.820.34 10.06 0.2

In still further embodiments, the secondary filters may have a centerwavelength tolerance of ±0.5% and a half-power bandwidth tolerance of±0.02 μm.

Of course, the number of secondary filters employed, and the centerwavelengths thereof, may vary in further embodiments of the system 10,whether such further embodiments are employed to detect glucose, orother analytes instead of or in addition to glucose. For example, inanother embodiment, the filter wheel 50 can have fewer than fiftysecondary filters 60. In still another embodiment, the filter wheel 50can have fewer than twenty secondary filters 60. In yet anotherembodiment, the filter wheel 50 can have fewer than ten secondaryfilters 60.

In one embodiment, the secondary filters 60 each measure about 10 mmlong by 10 mm wide in a plane orthogonal to the major axis X, with athickness of about 1 mm. However, the secondary filters 60 can have anyother dimensions suitable for operation of the analyte detection system10. Additionally, the secondary filters 60 are preferably configured tooperate at a temperature of between about 5° C. and about 35° C. and toallow transmission of more than about 75% of the energy beam Etherethrough in the wavelength(s) which the filter is configured topass.

According to the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 4, the primary filter 40operates as a broadband filter and the secondary filters 60 disposed onthe filter wheel 50 operate as narrow band filters. However, one ofordinary skill in the art will realize that other structures can be usedto filter energy wavelengths according to the embodiments describedherein. For example, the primary filter 40 may be omitted and/or anelectronically tunable filter or Fabry-Perot interferometer (not shown)can be used in place of the filter wheel 50 and secondary filters 60.Such a tunable filter or interferometer can be configured to permit, ina sequential, “one-at-a-time” fashion, each of a set of wavelengths orwavelength bands of electromagnetic radiation to pass therethrough foruse in analyzing the material sample S.

A reflector tube 98 is preferably positioned to receive the filteredenergy beam (Ef) as it advances from the secondary filter(s) 60. Thereflector tube 98 is preferably secured with respect to the secondaryfilter(s) 60 to substantially prevent introduction of strayelectromagnetic radiation, such as stray light, into the reflector tube98 from outside of the detection system 10. The inner surfaces of thereflector tube 98 are highly reflective in the relevant wavelengths andpreferably have a cylindrical shape with a generally circularcross-section orthogonal to the major and/or minor axis X, Y. However,the inner surface of the tube 98 can have a cross-section of anysuitable shape, such as oval, square, rectangular, etc. Like thecollimator 30, the reflector tube 98 may be formed from a rigid materialsuch as aluminum, steel, etc., as long as the inner surfaces are coatedor otherwise treated to be highly reflective in the wavelengths ofinterest. For example, a polished gold coating may be employed.

According to the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 4, the reflector tube 98preferably comprises a major section 98 a and a minor section 98 b. Asdepicted, the reflector tube 98 can be T-shaped with the major section98 a having a greater length than the minor section 98 b. In anotherexample, the major section 98 a and the minor section 98 b can have thesame length. The major section 98 a extends between a first end 98 c anda second end 98 d along the major axis X. The minor section 98 b extendsbetween the major section 98 a and a third end 98 e along the minor axisY.

The major section 98 a conducts the filtered energy beam (Ef) from thefirst end 98 c to the beam splitter 100, which is housed in the majorsection 98 a at the intersection of the major and minor axes X, Y. Themajor section 98 a also conducts the sample beam (Es) from the beamsplitter 100, through the first lens 110 and to the second end 98 d.From the second end 98 d the sample beam (Es) proceeds through thesample element 120, holder 130 and second lens 140, and to the sampledetector 150. Similarly, the minor section 98 b conducts the referencebeam (Er) from the beam splitter 100, through the third lens 160 and tothe third end 98 e. From the third end 98 e the reference beam (Er)proceeds to the reference detector 170.

The sample beam (Es) preferably comprises from about 75% to about 85% ofthe energy of the filtered energy beam (Ef). More preferably, the samplebeam (Es) comprises about 80% of the energy of the filtered energy beam(Es). The reference beam (Er) preferably comprises from about 15% andabout 25% of the energy of the filtered energy beam (Es). Morepreferably, the reference beam (Er) comprises about 20% of the energy ofthe filtered energy beam (Ef). Of course, the sample and reference beamsmay take on any suitable proportions of the energy beam E.

The reflector tube 98 also houses the first lens 110 and the third lens160. As illustrated in FIG. 4, the reflector tube 98 houses the firstlens 110 between the beam splitter 100 and the second end 98 d. Thefirst lens 110 is preferably disposed so that a plane 112 of the lens110 is generally orthogonal to the major axis X. Similarly, the tube 98houses the third lens 160 between the beam splitter 100 and the thirdend 98 e. The third lens 160 is preferably disposed so that a plane 162of the third lens 160 is generally orthogonal to the minor axis Y. Thefirst lens 110 and the third lens 160 each has a focal length configuredto substantially focus the sample beam (Es) and reference beam (Er),respectively, as the beams (Es, Er) pass through the lenses 110, 160. Inparticular, the first lens 110 is configured, and disposed relative tothe holder 130, to focus the sample beam (Es) so that substantially theentire sample beam (Es) passes through the material sample S, residingin the sample element 120. Likewise, the third lens 160 is configured tofocus the reference beam (Er) so that substantially the entire referencebeam (Er) impinges onto the reference detector 170.

The sample element 120 is retained within the holder 130, which ispreferably oriented along a plane generally orthogonal to the major axisX. The holder 130 is configured to be slidably displaced between aloading position and a measurement position within the analyte detectionsystem 10. In the measurement position, the holder 130 contacts a stopedge 136 which is located to orient the sample element 120 and thesample S contained therein on the major axis X.

The structural details of the holder 130 depicted in FIG. 4 areunimportant, so long as the holder positions the sample element 120 andsample S on and substantially orthogonal to the major axis X, whilepermitting the energy beam E to pass through the sample element andsample. As with the embodiment depicted in FIG. 2, the holder 130 may beomitted and the sample element 120 positioned alone in the depictedlocation on the major axis X. However, the holder 130 is useful wherethe sample element 120 (discussed in further detail below) isconstructed from a highly brittle or fragile material, such as bariumfluoride, or is manufactured to be extremely thin.

As with the embodiment depicted in FIG. 2, the sample and referencedetectors 150, 170 shown in FIG. 4 respond to radiation incident thereonby generating signals and passing them to the processor 180. Based thesesignals received from the sample and reference detectors 150, 170, theprocessor 180 computes the concentration(s), absorbance(s),transmittance(s), etc. relating to the sample S by executing a dataprocessing algorithm or program instructions residing within the memory185 accessible by the processor 180. In further variations of thedetection system 10 depicted in FIG. 4, the beam splitter 100, referencedetector 170 and other structures on the minor axis Y may be omitted,especially where the output intensity of the source 20 is sufficientlystable to obviate any need to reference the source intensity inoperation of the detection system 10.

FIG. 5 depicts a sectional view of the sample detector 150 in accordancewith one embodiment. The sample detector 150 is mounted in a detectorhousing 152 having a receiving portion 152 a and a cover 152 b.,However, any suitable structure may be used as the sample detector 150and housing 152. The receiving portion 152 a preferably defines anaperture 152 c and a lens chamber 152 d, which are generally alignedwith the major axis X when the housing 152 is mounted in the analytedetection system 10. The aperture 152 c is configured to allow at leasta fraction of the sample beam (Es) passing through the sample S and thesample element 120 to advance through the aperture 152 c and into thelens chamber 152 d.

The receiving portion 152 a houses the second lens 140 in the lenschamber 152 d proximal to the aperture 152 c. The sample detector 150 isalso disposed in the lens chamber 152 d downstream of the second lens140 such that a detection plane 154 of the detector 150 is substantiallyorthogonal to the major axis X. The second lens 140 is positioned suchthat a plane 142 of the lens 140 is substantially orthogonal to themajor axis X. The second lens 140 is configured, and is preferablydisposed relative to the holder 130 and the sample detector 150, tofocus substantially all of the sample beam (Es) onto the detection plane154, thereby increasing the flux density of the sample beam (Es)incident upon the detection plane 154.

With further reference to FIG. 5, a support member 156 preferably holdsthe sample detector 150 in place in the receiving portion 152 a. In theillustrated embodiment, the support member 156 is a spring 156 disposedbetween the sample detector 150 and the cover 152 b. The spring 156 isconfigured to maintain the detection plane 154 of the sample detector150 substantially orthogonal to the major axis X. A gasket 157 ispreferably disposed between the cover 152 b and the receiving portion152 a and surrounds the support member 156.

The receiving portion 152 a preferably also houses a printed circuitboard 158 disposed between the gasket 157 and the sample detector 150.The board 158 connects to the sample detector 150 through at least oneconnecting member 150 a. The sample detector 150 is configured togenerate a detection signal corresponding to the sample beam (Es)incident on the detection plane 154. The sample detector 150communicates the detection signal to the circuit board 158 through theconnecting member 150 a, and the board 158 transmits the detectionsignal to the processor 180.

In one embodiment, the sample detector 150 comprises a generallycylindrical housing 150 a, e.g., a type TO-39 “metal can” package, whichdefines a generally circular housing aperture 150 b at its “upstream”end. In one embodiment, the housing 150 a has a diameter of about 0.323inches and a depth of about 0.248 inches, and the aperture 150 b mayhave a diameter of about 0.197 inches.

A detector window 150 c is disposed adjacent the aperture 150 b, withits upstream surface preferably about 0.078 inches (+/−0.004 inches)from the detection plane 154. (The detection plane 154 is located about0.088 inches (+/−0.004 inches) from the upstream edge of the housing 150a, where the housing has a thickness of about 0.010 inches.) Thedetector window 150 c is preferably transmissive of infrared energy inat least a 3-12 micron passband; accordingly, one suitable material forthe window 150 c is germanium. The endpoints of the passband may be“spread” further to less than 2.5 microns, and/or greater than 12.5microns, to avoid unnecessary absorbance in the wavelengths of interest.Preferably, the transmittance of the detector window 150 c does not varyby more than 2% across its passband. The window 150 c is preferablyabout 0.020 inches in thickness. The sample detector 150 preferablysubstantially retains its operating characteristics across a temperaturerange of −20 to +60 degrees Celsius.

FIG. 6 depicts a sectional view of the reference detector 170 inaccordance with one embodiment. The reference detector 170 is mounted ina detector housing 172 having a receiving portion 172 a and a cover 172b. However, any suitable structure may be used as the sample detector150 and housing 152. The receiving portion 172 a preferably defines anaperture 172 c and a chamber 172 d which are generally aligned with theminor axis Y, when the housing 172 is mounted in the analyte detectionsystem 10. The aperture 172 c is configured to allow the reference beam(Er) to advance through the aperture 172 c and into the chamber 172 d.

The receiving portion 172 a houses the reference detector 170 in thechamber 172 d proximal to the aperture 172 c. The reference detector 170is disposed in the chamber 172 d such that a detection plane 174 of thereference detector 170 is substantially orthogonal to the minor axis Y.The third lens 160 is configured to substantially focus the referencebeam (Er) so that substantially the entire reference beam (Er) impingesonto the detection plane 174, thus increasing the flux density of thereference beam (Er) incident upon the detection plane 174.

With further reference to FIG. 6, a support member 176 preferably holdsthe reference detector 170 in place in the receiving portion 172 a. Inthe illustrated embodiment, the support member 176 is a spring 176disposed between the reference detector 170 and the cover 172 b. Thespring 176 is configured to maintain the detection plane 174 of thereference detector 170 substantially orthogonal to the minor axis Y. Agasket 177 is preferably disposed between the cover 172 b and thereceiving portion 172 a and surrounds the support member 176.

The receiving portion 172 a preferably also houses a printed circuitboard 178 disposed between the gasket 177 and the reference detector170. The board 178 connects to the reference detector 170 through atleast one connecting member 170 a. The reference detector 170 isconfigured to generate a detection signal corresponding to the referencebeam (Er) incident on the detection plane 174. The reference detector170 communicates the detection signal to the circuit board 178 throughthe connecting member 170 a, and the board 178 transmits the detectionsignal to the processor 180.

In one embodiment, the construction of the reference detector 170 isgenerally similar to that described above with regard to the sampledetector 150.

In one embodiment, the sample and reference detectors 150, 170 are bothconfigured to detect electromagnetic radiation in a spectral wavelengthrange of between about 0.8 μm and about 25 μm. However, any suitablesubset of the foregoing set of wavelengths can be selected. In anotherembodiment, the detectors 150, 170 are configured to detectelectromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range of between about 4 μmand about 12 μm. The detection planes 154, 174 of the detectors 150, 170may each define an active area about 2 mm by 2 mm or from about 1 mm by1 mm to about 5 mm by 5 mm; of course, any other suitable dimensions andproportions may be employed. Additionally, the detectors 150, 170 may beconfigured to detect electromagnetic radiation directed thereto within acone angle of about 45 degrees from the major axis X.

In one embodiment, the sample and reference detectors 150, 170 furthercomprise a system (not shown) for regulating the temperature of thedetectors. Such a temperature-regulation system may comprise a suitableelectrical heat source, thermistor, and aproportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative (PID) control. Thesecomponents may be used to regulate the temperature of the detectors 150,170 at about 35° C. The detectors 150, 170 can also optionally beoperated at other desired temperatures. Additionally, the PID controlpreferably has a control rate of about 60 Hz and, along with the heatsource and thermistor, maintains the temperature of the detectors 150,170 within about 0.1° C. of the desired temperature.

The detectors 150, 170 can operate in either a voltage mode or a currentmode, wherein either mode of operation preferably includes the use of apre-amp module. Suitable voltage mode detectors for use with the analytedetection system 10 disclosed herein include: models LIE 302 and 312 byInfraTec of Dresden, Germany; model L2002 by BAE Systems of Rockville,Md.; and model LTS-1 by Dias of Dresden, Germany. Suitable current modedetectors include: InfraTec models LIE 301, 315, 345 and 355; and 2×2current-mode detectors available from Dias.

In one embodiment, one or both of the detectors 150, 170 may meet thefollowing specifications, when assuming an incident radiation intensityof about 9.26×10⁻⁴ watts (rms) per cm², at 10 Hz modulation and within acone angle of about 15 degrees: detector area of 0.040 cm² (2 mm×2 mmsquare); detector input of 3.70×10⁻⁵ watts (rms) at 10 Hz; detectorsensitivity of 360 volts per watt at 10 Hz; detector output of1.333×10⁻² volta (rms) at 10 Hz; noise of 8.00×10⁻⁸ volta/sqrtHz at 10Hz; and signal-to-noise ratios of 1.67×10⁵ rms/sqrtHz and 104.4dB/sqrtHz; and detectivity of 1.00×10⁹ cm sqrtHz/watt.

In alternative embodiments, the detectors 150, 170 may comprisemicrophones suitable for operation of the detection system 10 in aphotoacoustic mode.

Any of the disclosed embodiments of the analyte detection system 10 maycomprise a near-patient testing system. As used herein, “near-patienttesting system” is used in its ordinary sense and includes, withoutlimitation, test systems that are configured to be used where thepatient is rather than exclusively in a laboratory, e.g., systems thatcan be used at a patient's home, in a clinic, in a hospital, or even ina mobile environment. Users of near-patient testing systems can includepatients, family members of patients, clinicians, nurses, or doctors. A“near-patient testing system” could also include a “point-of-care”system.

The components of any of the embodiments of the analyte detection system10 may be partially or completely contained in an enclosure or casing(not shown) to prevent stray electromagnetic radiation, such as straylight, from contaminating the energy beam E. Any suitable casing may beused. Similarly, the components of the detection system 10 may bemounted on any suitable frame or chassis (not shown) to maintain theiroperative alignment as depicted in FIGS. 1-2 and 4. The frame and thecasing may be formed together as a single unit, member or collection ofmembers.

Any of the disclosed embodiments of the analyte detection system 10 mayin one embodiment be configured to be operated easily by the patient oruser. As such, the system 10 is may comprise a portable device. As usedherein, “portable” is used in its ordinary sense and means, withoutlimitation, that the system 10 can be easily transported by the patientand used where convenient. For example, the system 10 is advantageouslysmall. In one preferred embodiment, the system 10 is small enough to fitinto a purse or backpack. In another embodiment, the system 10 is smallenough to fit into a pants pocket. In still another embodiment, thesystem 10 is small enough to be held in the palm of a hand of the user.

When enclosed in the external casing (not shown), the analyte detectionsystem 10 is advantageously no larger than 5.4 inches long by 3.5 incheswide by 1.5 inches deep. In further embodiments, the enclosed system 10may be no more than about 80% or 90% of this size. In still furtherembodiments, the enclosed analyte detection system 10 takes up less thanabout one-half, or less than about one-tenth the volume of alaboratory-grade Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer (FTIR), whichtypically measures about 2 feet wide by one foot high by one foot deep.Accordingly, in these embodiments the enclosed analyte detection system10 has a volume of less than about 1750 cubic inches, or less than about350 cubic inches. In still another embodiment, the analyte detectionsystem 10 measures about 3.5 inches by 2.5 inches by 2.0 inches, and/orhas a volume of about 10 cubic inches. Despite its relatively small sizeas disclosed above, the analyte detection system 10 achieves very goodperformance in a variety of measures, as detailed below. However, theanalyte detection system 10 is not limited to these sizes and can bemanufactured to other dimensions.

In one method of operation, the analyte detection system 10 shown inFIG. 2 or 4 measures the concentration of an analyte in the materialsample S, in part, by comparing the electromagnetic radiation detectedby the sample and reference detectors 150, 170. During operation of thedetection system 10, each of the secondary filter(s) 60 is sequentiallyaligned with the major axis X for a dwell time corresponding to thesecondary filter 60. (Of course, where an electronically tunable filteror Fabry-Perot interferometer is used in place of the filter wheel 50,the tunable filter or interferometer is sequentially tuned to each of aset of desired wavelengths or wavelength bands in lieu of the sequentialalignment of each of the secondary filters with the major axis X.) Theenergy source 20 is then operated at (any) modulation frequency, asdiscussed above, during the dwell time period. The dwell time may bedifferent for each secondary filter 60 (or each wavelength or band towhich the tunable filter or interferometer is tuned). In one embodimentof the detection system 10, the dwell time for each secondary filter 60is less than about 1 second. Use of a dwell time specific to eachsecondary filter 60 advantageously allows the detection system 10 tooperate for a longer period of time at wavelengths where errors can havea greater effect on the computation of the analyte concentration in thematerial sample S. Correspondingly, the detection system 10 can operatefor a shorter period of time at wavelengths where errors have lesseffect on the computed analyte concentration. The dwell times mayotherwise be nonuniform among the filters/wavelengths/bands employed inthe detection system.

For each secondary filter 60 selectively aligned with the major axis X,the sample detector 150 detects the portion of the sample beam (Es), atthe wavelength or wavelength band corresponding to the secondary filter60, that is transmitted through the material sample S. The sampledetector 150 generates a detection signal corresponding to the detectedelectromagnetic radiation and passes the signal to the processor 180.Simultaneously, the reference detector 170 detects the reference beam(Er) transmitted at the wavelength or wavelength band corresponding tothe secondary filter 60. The reference detector 170 generates adetection signal corresponding to the detected electromagnetic radiationand passes the signal to the processor 180. Based on the signals passedto it by the detectors 150, 170, the processor 180 computes theconcentration of the analyte(s) of interest in the sample S, and/or theabsorbance/transmittance characteristics of the sample S at one or morewavelengths or wavelength bands employed to analyze the sample. Theprocessor 180 computes the concentration(s), absorbance(s),transmittance(s), etc. by executing a data processing algorithm orprogram instructions residing within the memory 185 accessible by theprocessor 180.

The signal generated by the reference detector may be used to monitorfluctuations in the intensity of the energy beam emitted by the source20, which fluctuations often arise due to drift effects, aging, wear orother imperfections in the source itself. This enables the processor 180to identify changes in intensity of the sample beam (Es) that areattributable to changes in the emission intensity of the source 20, andnot to the composition of the sample S. By so doing, a potential sourceof error in computations of concentration, absorbance, etc. is minimizedor eliminated.

In one embodiment, the detection system 10 computes an analyteconcentration reading by first measuring the electromagnetic radiationdetected by the detectors 150, 170 at each center wavelength, orwavelength band, without the sample element 120 present on the majoraxis X (this is known as an “air” reading). Second, the system 10measures the electromagnetic radiation detected by the detectors 150,170 for each center wavelength, or wavelength band, with the sampleelement 120 present on the major axis X, but without the material sampleS (i.e., a “dry” reading). Third, the system 10 measures theelectromagnetic radiation detected by the detectors 150, 170 with anopaque element or mask (such as a secondary filter 60 which issubstantially opaque in the wavelength(s) of interest) disposed on themajor axis X between the source 20 and beam splitter 100, and/or withthe source 20 switched off (i.e., a “dark” reading). Fourth, the system10 measures the electromagnetic radiation detected by the detectors 150,170 for each center wavelength, or wavelength band, with the materialsample S present in the sample element 120, and the sample element 120and sample S in position on the major axis X (i.e., a “wet” reading).Finally, the processor 10 computes the concentration(s), absorbance(s)and/or transmittances relating to the sample S based on these compiledreadings.

FIG. 7 depicts a further embodiment of a method 190 of operating eitherof the analyte detection systems 10 depicted in FIG. 2 or FIG. 4 (or,alternatively, any suitable detection system). In the followingdescription, the method 190 is conducted in the transmittance domain;however, it may alternatively be performed in the absorbance domain withthe relevant measures adjusted accordingly for working with absorbancemeasures rather than transmittance measures.

In an operational block 190 a, a “dark” reading is taken as discussedabove, wherein the processor 180 computes a dark transmittance readingTD, which is stored in memory. Next, an “air” reading is taken, asdiscussed above, in an operational block 190 b. This operation maycomprise computing and storing an air transmittance reading TA, and again factor GF which equals 100%/TA (see operational block 190 c), aswell as a simultaneous air reference intensity RIA (operational block190 d), based on the output of the reference detector 170 during the airreading. In one embodiment, any or all of the air transmittance readingTA, gain factor GF and air reference intensity RIA are computed at eachof the wavelengths or wavelength bands of interest, yielding, forexample, TA_(λ1), TA_(λ2), . . . TA_(λn); GF_(λ1), GF_(λ2), . . .GF_(λn); etc.

In operational block 190 e, a “wet” reading is taken as described above,with the sample element and sample S therein positioned on the majoraxis X. The wet reading yields a series of wavelength-specifictransmittance values T_(λ1), T_(λ2), . . . T_(λn) in each of thewavelengths or bands of interest, which values are stored in memory,along with simultaneously-recorded corresponding wet referenceintensities RIW_(λ1), RIW_(λ2), . . . RIW_(λn) which arise from theoutput of the reference detector 170 at each wavelength/band of interestwhile the wet reading is taken. The wet reading is then shifted (seeblock 190 f) by subtracting the dark transmittance reading(s) from eachof the wavelength-specific transmittance values T_(λ1), T_(λ2), . . .T_(λn), yielding shifted transmittance values TS_(λ1), TS_(λ2), . . .TS_(λn). In block 190 g, the shifted transmittance values are scaled bymultiplying each of the values TS_(λ1), TS_(λ2), . . . TS_(λn), by thepreviously-computed gain factor (s) GF. Where wavelength-specific gainfactors GF_(λ1), GF_(λ2), . . . GF_(λn) have been computed, each shiftedtransmittance value TS_(λi), is multiplied by its corresponding gainfactor GF_(λi). Either option yields shifted, scaled transmittancevalues TSS_(λ1), TSS_(λ2), . . . TSS_(λn).

In operational block 190 h, each of the shifted, scaled transmittancevalues TSS_(λ1), TSS_(λ2), . . . TSS_(λn) is source-referenced. First, aseries of reference factors RF_(λ1), RF_(λ2), . . . RF_(λn) are computedby dividing the air reference intensity RIA by each of the wet referenceintensities RIW_(λ1), RIW_(λ2), . . . RIW_(λn). Where a series of airreference intensities RIA_(λ1), RIA_(λ2), . . . RIA_(λn) have beencompiled, each air reference intensity RIA_(λi)is divided by itscorresponding wet reference intensity RIW_(λi) to generate the referencefactors RF_(λ1), RF_(λ2), . . . RF_(λn). Each of the shifted, scaledtransmittance values TSS_(λ1), TSS_(λ2), . . . TSS_(λn) issource-referenced by multiplying it by the corresponding referencefactor RF_(λ1), RF_(λ2), . . . RF_(λn) to generate shifted, scaled,source-referenced transmittance values TSSR_(λ1), TSSR_(λ2), . . .TSSR_(λn).

Each of the shifted, scaled, source-referenced transmittance valuesTSSR_(λ1), TSSR_(λ2), . . . TSSR_(λn) is sample-element referenced inoperational block 190 i, to yield final transmittance values TF_(λ1),TF_(λ2), . . . TF_(λn). Any of the sample-element referencing methodsdisclosed herein may be employed. While the sample-element referencingoperation 190 i is depicted at the end of the illustrated method 190,this referencing 190 i may in practice comprise a number ofsub-operations that are intermingled with the other operations of themethod 190, as will become apparent from the discussion herein of thevarious sample-element referencing methods. Regardless of the nature ofthe sample-element referencing operation, the final transmittance valuesTF_(λ1), TF_(λ2), . . . TF_(λn) may then be employed to compute theconcentration of the analyte(s) of interest in the sample S.

In further embodiments, any suitable variation of the method 190 may beemployed. Any one or combination of the operations 190 a-190 i may beomitted, depending on the desired level of measurement precision. Forexample, the dark reading 190 a and subsequent shift 190 f may beomitted. Instead of or in addition to omission of these operations 190a, 190 f, the air reading 190 b may be omitted, in whole or in part.Where measurement/computation of the air transmittance reading TA andgain factor GF (block 190 c) are omitted, the scaling operation 190 gmay also be omitted; likewise, where measurement/computation of the airreference intensity RIA (block 190 d) is omitted, the source referencingoperation 190 h may also be omitted. Finally, instead or in addition tothe foregoing omissions, the sample element referencing operation 190 imay be omitted.

In any variation of the method 190, the operations may be performed inany suitable sequence, and the method 190 is by no means limited to thesequence depicted in FIG. 7 and described above. Although, in theforegoing discussion of the method 190, a number of measurements andcomputations are performed in the transmittance domain, in furtherembodiments any or all of these measurements and computations may beperformed in the absorbance or optical density domain. Under theforegoing discussion, the method 190 includes “live”computation/measurement of the dark transmittance reading TD, airtransmittance reading TA, gain factor GF and air reference intensityRIA, during a measurement run of the detection system 10. In furtherembodiments of the method 190, any or all of these values may bepredetermined or computed in a previous measurement, then stored inmemory for use in a number of subsequent measurement runs, during whichthe value in question is recalled from memory for use as describedabove, rather than measured/computed anew.

In still further embodiments, any of the computational algorithms ormethods discussed below may be employed to compute the concentration ofthe analyte(s) of interest in the sample S from (any) finaltransmittance values TF_(λ1), TF_(λ2), . . . TF_(λn) output by any ofthe embodiments of the method 190 discussed herein. Any of the disclosedembodiments of the method 190 may reside as program instructions in thememory 185 so as to be accessible for execution by the processor 180 ofthe analyte detection system 10.

In one embodiment, the processor 180 is configured to communicate theanalyte concentration results and/or other information to a displaycontroller (not shown), which operates a display (not shown), such as anLCD display, to present the information to the user. In one embodiment,the processor 180 can communicate to the display controller only theconcentration of glucose in the material sample S. In anotherembodiment, the processor 180 can communicate to the display controllerthe concentration of ketone in addition to the concentration of glucosein the material sample S. In still another embodiment, the processor 180can communicate to the display controller the concentration of multipleanalytes in the material sample S. In yet another embodiment, thedisplay outputs the glucose concentration with a resolution of 1 mg/dL.

Additional capabilities of various embodiments of the analyte detectionsystem 10, and other related information, may be found in U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 10/826,004, filed on even date herewith, titledSYSTEM AND METHOD FOR MANAGING A CHRONIC MEDICAL CONDITION. The entirecontents of this patent application is hereby incorporated herein in itsentirety by this reference and made a part of this specification.

II. SAMPLE ELEMENT

In view of the foregoing disclosure of certain embodiments of theanalyte detection system 10, the following section discusses variousembodiments of a cuvette or sample element for use with the analytedetection system 10. As used herein, “sample element” is a broad termand is used in its ordinary sense and includes, without limitation,structures that have a sample chamber and at least one sample chamberwall, but more generally includes any of a number of structures that canhold, support or contain a material sample and that allowelectromagnetic radiation to pass through a sample held, supported orcontained thereby; e.g., a cuvette, test strip, etc.

FIGS. 8 and 9 depict a cuvette or sample element 120 for use with any ofthe various embodiments of the analyte detection system 10 disclosedherein. Alternatively, the sample element 120 may be employed with anysuitable analyte detection system. The sample element 120 comprises asample chamber 200 defined by sample chamber walls 202 a-d. The samplechamber 200 is configured to hold a material sample which may be drawnfrom a patient, for analysis by the detection system with which thesample element 120 is employed. Alternatively, the sample chamber 200may be employed to hold other organic or inorganic materials for suchanalysis.

In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 8-9, the sample chamber 200 isdefined by first and second lateral chamber walls 202 a, 202 b and upperand lower chamber walls 202 c, 202 d; however, any suitable number andconfiguration of chamber walls may be employed. At least one of theupper and lower chamber walls 202 c, 202 d is formed from a materialwhich is sufficiently transmissive of the wavelength(s) ofelectromagnetic radiation that are employed by the analyte detectionsystem 10 (or any other system with which the sample element is to beused). A chamber wall which is so transmissive may thus be termed a“window;” in one embodiment, the upper and lower chamber walls 202 c,202 d comprise first and second windows so as to permit the relevantwavelength(s) of electromagnetic radiation to pass through the samplechamber 200. In another embodiment, these first and second windows aresimilar to the first and second windows 122, 124 discussed above. In yetanother embodiment, only one of the upper and lower chamber walls 202 c,202 d comprises a window; in such an embodiment, the other of the upperand lower chamber walls may comprise a reflective surface configured toback-reflect any electromagnetic energy emitted into the sample chamber200 by the analyte detection system with which the sample element 120 isemployed. Accordingly, this embodiment is well suited for used with ananalyte detection system in which a source and a detector ofelectromagnetic energy are located on the same side as the sampleelement.

In various embodiments, the material that makes up the window(s) of thesample element 120 is completely transmissive, i.e., it does not absorbany of the electromagnetic radiation from the source 20 and first andsecond filters 40, 60 that is incident upon it. In another embodiment,the material of the window(s) has some absorption in the electromagneticrange of interest, but its absorption is negligible. In yet anotherembodiment, the absorption of the material of the window(s) is notnegligible, but it is known and stable for a relatively long period oftime. In another embodiment, the absorption of the window(s) is stablefor only a relatively short period of time, but the analyte detectionsystem 10 is configured to observe the absorption of the material andeliminate it from the analyte measurement before the material propertiescan change measurably. Materials suitable for forming the window(s) ofthe sample element 120 include barium fluoride, silicon, polypropylene,polyethylene, or any polymer with suitable transmissivity (i.e.,transmittance per unit thickness) in the relevant wavelength(s). Wherethe window(s) are formed from a polymer, the selected polymer can beisotactic, atactic or syndiotactic in structure, so as to enhance theflow of the sample between the window(s). One type of polyethylenesuitable for constructing the sample element 120 is type 220, asextruded, available from KUBE Ltd. of Staefa, Switzerland.

In one embodiment, the sample element 120 is configured to allowsufficient transmission of electromagnetic energy having a wavelength ofbetween about 4 μm and about 10.5 μm through the window(s) thereof.However, the sample element 120 can be configured to allow transmissionof wavelengths in any spectral range emitted by the energy source 20. Inanother embodiment, the sample element 120 is configured to receive anoptical power of more than about 1.0 MW/cm² from the sample beam (Es)incident thereon for any electromagnetic radiation wavelengthtransmitted through-the secondary filter(s) 60. In still anotherembodiment, the sample element 120 is configured to allow transmissionof about 75% of the electromagnetic energy incident upon the samplechamber 200 therethrough. Preferably, the sample chamber 200 of thesample element 120 is configured to allow a sample beam (Es) advancingtoward the material sample S within a cone angle of 45 degrees from themajor axis X (see FIGS. 1, 2) to pass therethrough.

In the embodiment illustrated in FIGS. 8-9, the sample element furthercomprises a supply passage 204 extending from the sample chamber 200 toa supply opening 206 and a vent passage 208 extending from the samplechamber 200 to a vent opening 210. While the vent opening 210 is shownat one end of the sample element 120, in other embodiments the ventopening 210 may be positioned on either side of the sample element 120,so long as it is in fluid communication with the vent passage 208.

In operation, the supply opening 206 of the sample element 120 is placedin contact with the material sample S, such as a fluid flowing from awound on a patient. The fluid is then transported through the samplesupply passage 204 and into the sample chamber 200 via capillary action.The vent passage 208 and vent opening 210 improve the sample transportby preventing the buildup of air pressure within the sample element andallowing the sample to displace the air as the sample flows to thesample chamber 200.

Where the upper and lower chamber walls 202 c, 202 d comprise windows,the distance T (measured along an axis substantially orthogonal to thesample chamber 200 and/or windows 202 a, 202 b, or, alternatively,measured along an axis of an energy beam (such as but not limited to theenergy beam E discussed above) passed through the sample chamber 200)between them comprises an optical pathlength (see FIG. 9). In variousembodiments, the pathlength is between about 1 μm and about 300 μm,between about 1 μm and about 100 μm, between about 25 μm and about 40μm, between about 10 μm and about 40 μm, between about 25 μm and about60 μm, or between about 30 μm and about 50 μm. In still anotherembodiment, the optical pathlength is about 25 μm. In some instances, itis desirable to hold the pathlength T to within about plus or minus 1 μmfrom any pathlength specified by the analyte detection system with whichthe sample element 120 is to be employed. Likewise, it may be desirableto orient the walls 202 c, 202 d with respect to each other within plusor minus 1 μm of parallel, and/or to maintain each of the walls 202 c,202 d to within plus or minus 1 μm of planar (flat), depending on theanalyte detection system with which the sample element 120 is to beused.

In one embodiment, the transverse size of the sample chamber 200 (i.e.,the size defined by the lateral chamber walls 202 a, 202 b) is aboutequal to the size of the active surface of the sample detector 150.Accordingly, in a further embodiment the sample chamber 200 is roundwith a diameter of about 4 mm.

The sample element 120 shown in FIGS. 8-9 has, in one embodiment, sizesand dimensions specified as follows. The supply passage 204 preferablyhas a length of about 17.7 mm, a width of about 0.7 mm, and a heightequal to the pathlength T. Additionally, the supply opening 206 ispreferably about 3 mm wide and smoothly transitions to the width of thesample supply passage 204. The sample element 120 is about 0.375 incheswide and about one inch long with an overall thickness of between about1.025 mm and about 1.140 mm. The vent passage 208 preferably has alength of about 1.8 mm to 2 mm and a width of about 3.8 mm to 4 mm, witha thickness substantially equal to the pathlength between the walls 202c, 202 d. The vent aperture 210 is of substantially the same height andwidth as the vent passage 208. Of course, other dimensions may beemployed in other embodiments while still achieving the advantages ofthe sample element 120.

The sample element 120 is preferably sized to receive a material sampleS having a volume less than or equal to about 3 μL (or less than orequal to about 2 μL, or less than or equal to about 1 μL) and morepreferably a material sample S having a volume less than or equal toabout 0.85 μL. Of course, the volume of the sample element 120, thevolume of the sample chamber 200, etc. can vary, depending on manyvariables, such as the size and sensitivity of the sample detector 150,the intensity of the radiation emitted by the energy source 20, theexpected flow properties of the sample, and whether flow enhancers areincorporated into the sample element 120. The transport of fluid to thesample chamber 200 is achieved preferably through capillary action, butmay also be achieved through wicking, or a combination of wicking andcapillary action.

FIG. 10 depicts one approach to constructing the sample element 120. Inthis approach, the sample element 120 comprises a first layer 220, asecond layer 230, and a third layer 240. The second layer 230 ispreferably positioned between the first layer 220 and the third layer240. The first layer 220 forms the upper chamber wall 202 c, and thethird layer 240 forms the lower chamber wall 202 d. Where either of thechamber walls 202 c, 202 d comprises a window, the window(s)/wall(s) 202c/202 d in question may be formed from a different material as isemployed to form the balance of the layer(s) 220/240 in which thewall(s) are located. Alternatively, the entirety of the layer(s) 220/240may be formed of the material selected to form the window(s)/wall(s) 202c, 202 d. In this case, the window(s)/wall(s) 202 c, 202 d areintegrally formed with the layer(s) 220, 240 and simply comprise theregions of the respective layer(s) 220, 240 which overlie the samplechamber 200.

With further reference to FIG. 10, the second layer 230 may be formedentirely of an adhesive that joins the first and third layers 220, 240.In other embodiments, the second layer 230 may be formed from similarmaterials as the first and third layers, or any other suitable material.The second layer 230 may also be formed as a carrier with an adhesivedeposited on both sides thereof. The second layer 230 includes voidswhich at least partially form the sample chamber 200, sample supplypassage 204, supply opening 206, vent passage 208, and vent opening 210.The thickness of the second layer 230 can be the same as any of thepathlengths disclosed above as suitable for the sample element 120. Thefirst and third layers can be formed from any of the materials disclosedabove as suitable for forming the window(s) of the sample element 120.

The sample chamber 200 preferably comprises a reagentless chamber. Inother words, the internal volume of the sample chamber 200 and/or thewall(s) 202 defining the chamber 200 are preferably inert with respectto the sample to be drawn into the chamber for analysis. As used herein,“inert” is a broad term and is used in its ordinary sense and includes,without limitation, substances which will not react with the sample in amanner which will significantly affect any measurement made of theconcentration of analyte(s) in the sample with the analyte detectionsystem 10 or any other suitable system, for a sufficient time (e.g.,about 1-30 minutes) following entry of the sample into the chamber 200,to permit measurement of the concentration of such analyte(s).Alternatively, the sample chamber 200 may contain one or more reagentsto facilitate use of the sample element in sample assay techniques whichinvolve reaction of the sample with a reagent.

In one embodiment, the sample element may be configured to separateplasma from a whole-blood or other similar sample, via employment of anappropriate filter or membrane, between the entry point of the sampleinto the sample element, and the sample chamber(s). In a sample elementso configured, the plasma flows downstream from the filter/membrane, tothe sample chamber(s). The balance of the sample (e.g., blood cells)remains at the filter/membrane. In various embodiments, thefilter/membrane may be constructed from microporous polyethylene ormicroporous polytetrafluoroethylene. In another embodiment, thefilter/membrane may be constructed from BTS-SP media available from PallCorporation of East Hills, N.Y.

Additional information on sample elements, methods of use thereof, andrelated technologies may be found in U.S. patent application Ser. No.10/825,223, filed on even date herewith, titled SAMPLE ELEMENT WITHBARRIER MATERIAL. The entire contents of this patent application ishereby incorporated herein in its entirety by this reference and made apart of this specification.

III. SAMPLE ELEMENT REFERENCING

In this section, there are disclosed a number of methods forsample-element referencing, which generally comprises compensating forthe effects of the sample element on the measurement of analyteconcentration. Any one or combination of the methods disclosed in thissection may reside as program instructions in the memory 185 so as to beaccessible for execution by the processor 180 of the analyte detectionsystem 10. In addition, any one or combination of the methods disclosedin this section may be employed as the sample-element referencingoperation 190 i of various embodiments of the method 190 depicted inFIG. 7 and discussed above.

Where employed as the sample-element referencing operation 190 i of themethod 190 (or where otherwise employed), any of the methods disclosedin this section may be performed in a wavelength-specific fashion, i.e.by computing a sample-element referenced transmittance, absorbance oroptical density at each wavelength/band analyzed by the analytedetection system in question.

As discussed above, materials having some electromagnetic radiationabsorption in the spectral range employed by the analyte detectionsystem 10 can be used to construct some or all of the sample element120. The accuracy of an analyte detection system, such as the system 10disclosed herein, may be improved by accounting for any scattering orabsorption phenomena attributable to the sample element when computingthe concentration of the analyte(s) of interest. Such scattering orabsorption due to imperfect transmission properties of the materials ofthe sample element may be overcome by determining at least one referencelevel of absorbance of the sample element and then removing thereference level from a subsequent measurement performed with the sampleelement. Devices and methods for overcoming imperfect transmissionproperties of materials employed in sample elements are now discussedwith reference to FIGS. 11-21.

In one embodiment, an empty, unused sample element, such as the sampleelement 120, can be referenced by determining the reference level ofabsorbance/transmittance (and scattering) of the sample element 120. Incertain embodiments, the method comprises positioning the sample chamber200 of the sample element 120 within the sample beam Es which passesthrough the windows 202 c, 202 d. The analyte detection system 10 thendetermines a reference level of absorbance or transmittance by thewindows 202 c, 202 d. A sample material is then drawn into the samplechamber 200. The sample beam Es is then passed through the windows 202c, 202 d of the sample chamber 200 as well as the sample itself. Theanalyte detection system 10 determines an analytical level of absorbanceor transmittance by the combination of the sample and the windows 202 c,202 d. Upon determining the reference and analytical levels ofabsorbance or transmittance, the analyte detection system 10 can accountfor absorption/transmission effects of the material comprising thewindows 202 c, 202 d when determining the concentration of theanalyte(s) of interest. Analyzing the reference and analytical levels ofabsorbance or transmittance (in other words, accounting for theabsorbance/transmittance effects of the material comprising the windows202 c, 202 d) can comprise calculating a difference in optical densitybetween the two. Alternatively, analyzing the levels can comprisecalculating a ratio of the analytical level of transmission to thereference level of transmission.

The difference-calculation alternative is employed where the sampleelement referencing method is performed in the absorbance or opticaldensity domain, and the ratio-calculation alternative is employed wherethe method is performed in the transmittance domain. The resulting dataset (typically, an absorbance or transmittance spectrum assembled fromsample-element referenced absorbance/transmittance measurements taken ateach wavelength/band analyzed by the detection system 10) can then beanalyzed to compute the concentration of the analyte(s) of interest inthe sample. This concentration analysis may be performed by employingany suitable method, including but not limited to any of the variouscomputational algorithms discussed in further detail in Section IVbelow. For example, any of the methods disclosed below for determininganalyte concentration(s) independent of the optical pathlength throughthe sample, may be employed.

FIG. 11 is a schematic illustration of a sample element 302 configuredto be referenced by an analyte detection system, such as but not limitedto the analyte detection system 10 disclosed above, in accordance withmethods described in detail below. Except as further described herein,the sample element 302 may in one embodiment be similar to any of theembodiments of the sample element 120 discussed above. As depicted inFIG. 11, the sample element 302 comprises a referencing chamber 304situated between first and second referencing windows 304 a, 304 b; anda sample chamber 306 situated between first and second sample windows306 a, 306 b. In one embodiment, the separation (i.e., pathlength)between the inner surfaces of the referencing windows 304 a, 304 b isdifferent than the separation (i.e., pathlength) between the innersurfaces of the sample windows 306 a, 306 b. In certain embodiments, thepathlength of the referencing chamber 304 is smaller than that of thesample chamber 306, while in other embodiments the pathlength of thesample chamber 306 is smaller than that of the referencing chamber 304.In still other embodiments, the pathlength of the referencing chamber304 is substantially zero. In one embodiment, one of the chambers 304,306 has a pathlength of about 10 microns, and the other of the chambershas a pathlength of about 30 microns.

As illustrated in FIG. 11, the first referencing window 304 a and firstsample window 306 a are preferably of substantially similar thickness,and the second referencing window 304 b and second sample window 306 bare preferably of substantially similar thickness as well. In oneembodiment, all of the windows 304 a, 304 b, 306 a, 306 b are ofsubstantially similar thickness. However, in other embodiments thesethicknesses may differ among the windows.

In one embodiment, one or more of the outer surfaces of one or more ofthe windows 304 a, 304 b, 306 a, 306 b is textured. This may be done by,for example, sanding the surface(s) in question, and/or molding orotherwise constructing them to have a relatively non-smooth surfacefinish. Depending on the materials employed to construct the sampleelement, texturing may improve the optical qualities of the sampleelement by reducing fringing. This texturing may be employed with any ofthe embodiments of the sample element disclosed herein by, for example,texturing one or both of the outer surfaces of the windows 202 c, 202 dof the sample element 120.

In one method of operation, the sample element 302 is coupled with ananalyte detection system 10 which utilizes a single beam ofelectromagnetic radiation for referencing the sample element 302 and formeasuring the concentration of an analyte in the sample. A sample isdrawn into the referencing chamber 304 (in those embodiments where thereferencing chamber is of sufficient pathlength or volume) and into thesample chamber 306. The sample element 302 is placed in a referenceposition within the analyte detection system 10 wherein the referencingchamber 304 and referencing windows 304 a, 304 b reside within anoptical path of a reference beam 308 of electromagnetic radiation. Thereference beam 308 is then passed through the referencing chamber 304(and, where applicable, that portion of the sample contained therein),and referencing windows 304 a, 304 b. The analyte detection system 10determines a reference level of absorbance or transmittance of thereference beam 308 due to absorbance or transmittance by the combinationof (any) sample within the referencing chamber 304 and the referencingwindows 304 a, 304 b. The sample element 302 is placed into ananalytical position wherein the sample chamber 306 and sample windows306 a, 306 b reside within the optical path of an analytical beam 310.The analytical beam 310 is then passed through the sample-filled samplechamber 306 and sample windows 306 a, 306 b. The analyte detectionsystem 10 determines an analytical level of absorbance or transmittanceof the analytical beam 310 due to absorbance or transmittance by thecombination of the sample within the sample chamber 306 and the samplewindows 306 a, 306 b. In one embodiment, reference and analytical levelsof absorbance or transmittance are measured at each wavelength/bandanalyzed by the analyte detection system 10.

Upon determining the reference and analytical levels of absorbance ortransmittance, the analyte detection system 10 can account forabsorbance or transmittance effects of the material comprising thesample element 302 when determining the concentration of the analyte(s)of interest in the sample. Analyzing the reference and analytical levelsof absorbance or transmittance (in other words, accounting for theabsorbance or transmittance effects of the material comprising thesample element 302) can comprise calculating a difference between thetwo. Alternatively, analyzing the levels can comprise calculating aratio of the analytical level to the reference level.

The difference-calculation alternative is employed where the sampleelement referencing method is performed in the absorbance or opticaldensity domain, and the ratio-calculation alternative is employed wherethe method is performed in the transmittance domain. Where reference andanalytical levels of absorbance or transmittance have been measured ineach of a series of wavelengths/bands, the difference calculation orratio calculation is performed on the (reference level, analyticallevel) pair measured at each wavelength/band in the series.

The resulting data set (for example, an absorbance or transmittancespectrum assembled from sample-element referencedabsorbance/transmittance measurements taken at each wavelength/bandanalyzed by the detection system 10) can then be analyzed to compute theconcentration of the analyte(s) of interest in the sample. Thisconcentration analysis may be performed by employing any suitablemethod, including but not limited to any of the various computationalalgorithms discussed in further detail in Section IV below. For example,any of the methods disclosed below for determining analyteconcentration(s) independent of the optical pathlength through thesample, may be employed.

Where significant differences arise between the thicknesses of the firstreferencing window 304 a and first sample window 306 a, or between thethicknesses of the first referencing window 304 a and first samplewindow 306 a, the absorbance/transmittance data output by theratio-calculation/difference calculation procedure may “include” some ofthe absorbance/transmittance aspects of the window material.Accordingly, where desired various embodiments of the methods disclosedin Section IV below for removing non-analyte contributions fromabsorption data, may be employed when analyzing theabsorbance/transmittance data to determine analyte concentration.

In another method of operation depicted in FIG. 12, the sample element302 is coupled with an analyte detection system 10 which utilizesseparate beams of electromagnetic radiation for referencing the sampleelement 302 and for measuring the concentration of an analyte in thesample. A sample is drawn into the referencing chamber 304 (in thoseembodiments where the referencing chamber is of sufficient volume) andinto the sample chamber 306 of the sample element 302. As depicted inFIG. 12, the sample element 302 is placed within the analyte detectionsystem 10 so that the referencing chamber 304 and referencing windows304 a, 304 b reside within the path of the reference beam 308 and sothat the sample chamber 306 and sample windows 306 a, 306 b residewithin the path of an analytical beam 312. The reference beam 308 passesthrough the referencing chamber 304 (and, where applicable, any portionof the sample contained therein), and referencing windows 304 a, 304 b,and the analytical beam 312 passes through the sample chamber 306, thatportion of the sample contained therein, and the sample windows 306 a,306 b. The analyte detection system 10 determines a reference level ofabsorbance or transmittance of the reference beam 308 due to absorbanceor transmittance by the combination of (any) sample within thereferencing chamber 304 and the material comprising the referencewindows 304 a, 304 b, and determines an analytical level of absorbanceor transmittance of the analytical beam 312 due to absorbance ortransmittance by the combination of the sample and the materialcomprising the sample windows 306 a, 306 b.

Upon determining the reference and analytical levels of absorbance ortransmittance, the analyte detection system 10 can account forabsorbance or transmittance effects of the material comprising thesample element 302 when determining the concentration of the analyte(s)of interest in the sample. Analyzing the reference and analytical levelsof absorbance or transmittance (in other words, accounting for theabsorbance or transmittance effects of the material comprising thesample element 302) can comprise calculating a difference between thetwo. Alternatively, analyzing the levels can comprise calculating aratio of the analytical level to the reference level.

The difference-calculation alternative is employed where the sampleelement referencing method is performed in the absorbance or opticaldensity domain, and the ratio-calculation alternative is employed wherethe method is performed in the transmittance domain. Where reference andanalytical levels of absorbance or transmittance have been measured ineach of a series of wavelengths/bands, the difference calculation orratio calculation is performed on the (reference level, analyticallevel) pair measured at each wavelength/band in the series.

The resulting data set (for example, an absorbance or transmittancespectrum assembled from sample-element referencedabsorbance/transmittance measurements taken at each wavelength/bandanalyzed by the detection system 10) can then be analyzed to compute theconcentration of the analyte(s) of interest in the sample. Thisconcentration analysis may be performed by employing any suitablemethod, including but not limited to any of the various computationalalgorithms discussed in further detail in Section IV below. For example,any of the methods disclosed below for determining analyteconcentration(s) independent of the optical pathlength through thesample, may be employed.

Where significant differences arise between the thicknesses of the firstreferencing window 304 a and first sample window 306 a, or between thethicknesses of the first referencing window 304 a and first samplewindow 306 a, the absorbance/transmittance data output by theratio-calculation/difference calculation procedure may “include” some ofthe absorbance/transmittance aspects of the window material.Accordingly, where desired various embodiments of the methods disclosedin Section IV below for removing non-analyte contributions fromabsorption data, may be employed when analyzing theabsorbance/transmittance data to determine analyte concentration.

In certain embodiments, a sample element may be referenced so as toovercome transmission properties of the materials comprising the sampleelement by drawing a sample into the sample element and then compressinga sample chamber of the sample element, thereby changing the separation(i.e., pathlength) between the inner surfaces of the sample chamber by apredetermined amount. Such embodiments use a deformable sample elementand controllably change the pathlength of the beam of electromagneticradiation passing through the material of, and/or the sample within, thesample chamber. The change in pathlength facilitates distinguishing theabsorbance or transmittance by the material of the sample element fromthe absorbance or transmittance by the sample within the sample chamber,by using any of the analysis methods (i.e., difference-calculation,ratio-calculation) disclosed above.

FIG. 13 is a cross-sectional view of one embodiment of an analytedetection system 406 comprising compressors 408, 409 for deforming asample element 402 between absorbance or transmittance measurements. Insome embodiments, the analyte detection system 406 may be generallysimilar to the system 10 disclosed above, and the sample element 402 maybe generally similar to the sample element 120 disclosed above, exceptas further described below. In other embodiments, the analyte detectionsystem 406 may comprise any suitable analyte detection system, withadditional structure as further described below.

As shown, the sample element 402 is positionable within the analytedetection system 406 such that a sample chamber 404 of the sampleelement 402 is positioned between the compressors 408, 409. Eachcompressor 408, 409 has a hollow portion 412 aligned with the major axisof the compressor to allow for substantially unimpeded passage of a beamof electromagnetic radiation through the compressors 408, 409 andthrough the sample chamber 404. In one embodiment, the compressors 408,409 may have a circular cross-section (i.e., the compressors 408, 409are formed as cylinders). In other embodiments, the compressors 408, 409can have other cross-sectional shapes. Preferably, the sample element402 is made of a material which is sufficiently pliable to allow forcompression by the compressors 408, 409.

As illustrated in FIG. 13, the analyte detection system 406 includes aproximity switch 445 which, in certain embodiments, detects theinsertion of the sample element 402 into the analyte detection system406. In response to the proximity switch 445, the analyte detectionsystem 406 can advantageously control the forces exerted on the sampleelement 402 by the compressors 408, 409. In one embodiment, uponactivation of the proximity switch 445 by the inserted sample element402, the compressors 408, 409 contact the sample element 402 and exertoppositely-directed forces 410, 411, respectively, on the sample element402. In certain embodiments, the forces 410, 411 are sufficiently smallso as to avoid substantially compressing the sample element 402. In onesuch embodiment, the sample element 402 is optimally positioned withinthe optical path of the beam 443 of the analyte detection system 406 andgently held in this optimal position by the compressors 408, 409, asshown in FIG. 13.

The beam 443 of electromagnetic radiation is passed through the samplechamber 404 to yield a first measurement of absorbance or transmittanceby the combination of the sample and the sample element 402 once thesample is drawn into the sample chamber 404. In certain embodiments, thesample is drawn into the sample chamber 404 of the sample element 402prior to insertion of the sample element 402 into the analyte detectionsystem 406. In other embodiments, the sample is drawn into the samplechamber 404 after the sample element 402 is positioned in the analytedetection system 406.

After the first measurement of absorbance or transmittance is taken, theanalyte detection system 406 compresses the sample element 402 byincreasing the forces 410, 411 exerted by the compressors 408, 409.These increased forces 410, 411 more strongly compress the sampleelement 402. In response to this stronger compression, the opticalpathlength through the sample element 402 is modified. Preferably, thesample element 402 undergoes plastic deformation due to the compressionforces 410, 411, while in other embodiments, the deformation is elastic.

Once the optical pathlength through the sample element 402 is modified,a second measurement of absorbance or transmittance by the combinationof the sample and the sample element 402 is taken. The analyte detectionsystem 406 then computes a sample-element referenced absorbance ortransmittance of the sample based on the first measurement of absorbanceor transmittance at the first pathlength and the second measurement ofabsorbance or transmittance at the second pathlength, using any of theanalysis methods (i.e., difference-calculation, ratio-calculation)disclosed above. Changing the optical pathlength facilitatesdistinguishing the absorbance or transmittance by the materialcomprising the sample element 402 from the absorbance or transmittanceby the sample within the sample chamber 404. Thus, the analyte detectionsystem 406 provides a measurement of the absorbance or transmittance bythe sample which is substantially free of contributions from theabsorbance or transmittance of the material comprising the sampleelement 402. Such measurements can increase the accuracy of the analyteconcentration measurements performed by the system 10 based on thesample-element referenced absorbance or transmittance measurements.These analyte concentration measurements may be performed by employingany suitable method, including but not limited to any of the variouscomputational algorithms discussed in further detail in Section IVbelow. For example, any of the methods disclosed below for determininganalyte concentration(s) independent of the optical pathlength throughthe sample, may be employed.

In the embodiment illustrated by FIG. 13, the compressors 408, 409decrease the optical pathlength of the sample chamber 404 by compressingthe sample chamber 404. FIG. 14 is a cross-sectional view of anotherembodiment of analyte detection system 506 configured for changing theoptical pathlength of the sample element 402. The structure andoperation of the analyte detection system 506 are substantially the sameas the analyte detection system 406 illustrated in FIG. 13, except withregard to the compressors. As shown in FIG. 14, the compressor 508comprises a first compressor window 512, and the compressor 509comprises a second compressor window 513. The compressor windows 512,513 contact the sample chamber 404 when the compressors 508, 509 gripthe sample element 402. The compressor windows 512, 513 serve to moreevenly distribute the oppositely-directed forces 410, 411, respectively,across an area of the sample chamber 404.

The compressor windows 512, 513 are preferably at least partiallyoptically transmissive in the range of electromagnetic radiationcomprising the beam 443. In one embodiment, one or both of thecompressor windows 512, 513 comprises a material that is substantiallycompletely transmissive to the electromagnetic radiation comprising thebeam 443. In yet another embodiment, the absorbance of the material ofone or both of the compressor windows 512, 513 is not negligible, but itis known and stable for a relatively long period of time, and is storedin memory (not shown) of the analyte detection system 506 so that thesystem 506 can remove the contributions due to absorbance ortransmittance of the material from measurements of the concentration ofthe analyte(s) of interest. In another embodiment, the absorbance of oneor both of the compressor windows 512, 513 is stable for only arelatively short period of time, but the analyte detection system 506 isconfigured to observe the absorbance of the material and substantiallyeliminate it from the analyte measurement before the material propertieschange significantly.

In various embodiments, the compressor windows 512, 513 may be formedfrom silicon, germanium, polyethylene, or polypropylene, and/or anyother suitable infrared-transmissive material.

In certain embodiments, a sample element is referenced so as to overcometransmission properties of the material comprising the sample element bydrawing a sample such as whole blood into the sample element and thencompressing the sample element to cause the sample chamber of the sampleelement to expand in a controlled manner, thereby controllablyincreasing the separation between the inner surfaces of the samplechamber. In this way, the compression of the sample element increasesthe optical pathlength through the sample chamber. The change in theoptical pathlength facilitates distinguishing the absorbance ortransmittance by the material comprising the sample element from theabsorbance or transmittance by the sample within the sample chamber.

FIGS. 15-16 illustrate an embodiment of an analyte detection system 606configured for expanding, a sample chamber 604 of a sample element 602.The analyte detection system 606 comprises a first profile 608 adjacentto a first chamber window 612 of the sample chamber 604, and a secondprofile 609 adjacent to a second chamber window 613 of the samplechamber 604. The profiles 608, 609 are open spaces into which thechamber windows 612, 613 can expand when the sample element 602 isforcibly compressed by the analyte detection system 606. Preferably, thesample element 602 is made of a material which is sufficiently pliableto allow for expansion of the sample chamber 604 into the profiles 608,609. Preferably, the sample element 602 undergoes plastic deformation,while in other embodiments, the deformation is elastic.

As illustrated in FIG. 16, when the analyte detection system 606compresses the sample element 602, the analyte detection system 606exerts oppositely-directed forces 610, 611 on the sample element 602.This causes the chamber windows 612, 613 to respectively expand into theprofiles 608, 609, thereby increasing the separation between the innersurfaces of the sample chamber 604 and increasing the optical pathlengthof the beam 443 through the sample chamber 604. The change in opticalpathlength enables the analyte detection system 606 to compute asample-element referenced measurement of the absorbance or transmittanceof the sample, using any of the analysis methods disclosed above. Thus,the analyte detection system 606 substantially eliminates thecontribution of absorbance or transmittance of the material comprisingthe sample element 602 in order to increase the accuracy of the analyteconcentration measurements performed by the system 10 based on thesample-element referenced absorbance or transmittance measurements.These analyte concentration measurements may be performed by employingany suitable method, including but not limited to any of the variouscomputational algorithms discussed in further detail in Section IVbelow. For example, any of the methods disclosed below for determininganalyte concentration(s) independent of the optical pathlength throughthe sample, may be employed.

FIGS. 17-18 depict another embodiment of the sample element 302discussed above in connection with FIGS. 11-12. Except as furtherdetailed below, the embodiment of the sample element 302 depicted inFIGS. 17-18 may be generally similar to the sample element 120 disclosedabove, and/or the sample element 302 of FIGS. 11-12. In addition, thesample element 302 depicted in FIGS. 17-18 may be employed in practicingany of the sample-element referencing methods disclosed herein,including without limitation those methods discussed in connection withthe sample element 302 depicted in FIGS. 11-12.

The sample element 302 further comprises a first strut 320 disposed inthe referencing chamber 304 and extending from the first referencingwindow 304 a to the second referencing window 304 b. In addition, asecond strut 322 is disposed in the sample chamber 306 and extends fromthe first sample window 306 a to the second sample window 306 b. Thestruts 320, 322 are preferably oriented in the chambers 304, 306 so thatthey extend generally parallel to an optical axis of a beam of energypassed through either of the chambers 304, 306, when the sample element302 is employed in measuring analyte concentrations. For example, whenthe sample element 302 is placed in the analyte detection system 10, thestrut(s) 320, 322 extend generally parallel to the major axis X and/orthe energy beam E.

The struts 320, 322 depicted in FIGS. 17-18 comprise members havingsufficient column and tensile strength to minimize or prevent inward oroutward deflection of the referencing windows 304 a, 304 b and samplewindows 306 a, 306 b, respectively. The struts 320, 322 advantageouslyassist in preserving the planarity of the windows 304 a, 304 b, 306 a,306 b, thereby enhancing the accuracy of some analyte-concentrationmeasurements taken with the sample element 302. Although variouscomputational algorithms are disclosed below for preserving measurementaccuracy despite imperfections in sample-element geometry (e.g.,pathlength, window planarity, window parallelism), the struts 320, 322may be employed instead of or in addition to various combinations ofsuch algorithms when measuring analyte concentrations.

In the illustrated embodiment, the struts 320, 322 comprise cylindricalmembers (i.e. having a circular cross-section); however, any othersuitable cross-sectional shape (including without limitation oval,square, rectangular, triangular, etc.) may be employed. In theillustrated embodiment, the struts 320, 322 maintain a substantiallyconstant cross-section as they extend from the first window 304 a/306 ato the second window 304 b/306 b; however, a varying cross-section maybe employed.

In the embodiment shown in FIGS. 17-18, the struts 320, 322 are ofsubstantially similar cross-sectional area, and a single strut isemployed in each of the chambers 304, 306. However, the number of strutsemployed in each chamber may vary, as two, three, four or more may beused in each chamber, and the total cross-sectional area of thereferencing-chamber struts may either equal (in one embodiment) ordiffer from (in another embodiment) that of the sample-chamber struts.Similarly, strut(s) may be employed in only one, or both, of thereferencing and sample chambers 304, 306.

In one embodiment, each of the struts 320, 322 is substantially opaqueto the wavelength(s) of energy employed by the analyte detection system(such as the system 10) with which the sample element 302 is employed.For example, the struts 320, 322 may be formed from a material which issubstantially opaque to the wavelength(s) of interest, in the sourceintensity range employed by the detection system, and when formed in apathlength less than or equal to the shorter of the struts 320, 322. Inanother example, the struts may be formed from a material which does notmeet the above criteria, but a mask layer (not shown) may be positionedin each strut, or in or on one of the windows 304 a/304 b and one of thewindows 306 a/306 b, in axial alignment with each strut. The mask layersare substantially opaque to the wavelength(s) of interest and are shapedand sized to conform to the (largest) cross-section of the correspondingstruts, so as to substantially prevent passage of the energy beam Ethrough the struts 320, 322. In still further embodiments, any suitablestructure may be employed to substantially prevent passage of the energybeam E through the struts 320, 322.

By making the struts 320, 322 substantially opaque to the wavelength(s)of interest, or by otherwise preventing prevent passage of the energybeam E through the struts 320, 322, the absorbance/transmittance of thestruts drops out from the absorbance/transmittance data when thedifference or ratio is computed of the absorbance/transmittance measuredin each chamber 304, 306. In other words, by making theabsorbance/transmittance of the struts 320, 322 independent of thelength of the struts, their absorbance/transmittance can be accountedfor in computing analyte concentrations, despite their difference inlength. In another embodiment, a similar result can be obtained byotherwise constructing the struts 320, 322 to have substantially equalabsorbance or transmittance, but without making the struts 320, 322opaque.

In yet another embodiment, the strut(s) 320, 322 may be formed from amaterial which is highly transmissive of the wavelength(s) of interest.For example, where infrared wavelengths are employed in the measurementof analyte concentrations, the strut(s) may be formed from silicon,germanium, polyethylene, polypropylene, or a combination thereof.

FIG. 17, as an upper plan view of the sample element 302, also depicts avent passage 324 and supply passage 326 in fluid communication with thereferencing and sample chambers 304, 306, respectively. The vent andsupply passages 324, 326 may be generally similar to their counterpartsdisclosed above in connection with the sample element 120. In addition,the vent passage 324 and supply passage 326 may be employed in any ofthe embodiments of the sample element 302 discussed herein.

It is further contemplated that one or more struts of the type presentlydisclosed may be employed in the sample chamber 200 of the sampleelement 120 , so as to extend from the upper window 202 c to the lowerwindow 202 d.

FIGS. 19 and 20 depict yet another embodiment of the sample element 302discussed above in connection with FIGS. 11-12 and 17-18. Except asfurther detailed below, the embodiment of the sample element 302depicted in FIGS. 19-20 may be generally similar to the sample element120 disclosed above, and/or the sample elements 302 of FIGS. 11-12 and17-18. In addition, the sample element 302 depicted in FIGS. 19-20 maybe employed in practicing any of the sample-element referencing methodsdisclosed herein, including without limitation those methods discussedin connection with the sample elements 302 depicted in FIGS. 11-12 and17-18.

The sample element 302 depicted in FIGS. 19-20 further comprises astiffening layer 340 which is secured to the sample element 302,preferably on the underside thereof, by any appropriate means, such asadhesives, heat bonding, ultrasonic bonding, integral formation, etc.The stiffening layer 340 is sized and shaped, and its material chosen,to impart additional stiffness and rigidity to the sample element 302.The stiffening layer 304 may be formed from the materials used to formthe balance of the sample element 302, or other suitable materials asdesired. The stiffening layer 340 includes an opening 342 which isaligned with the referencing chamber 304 and sample chamber 306 topermit a beam of electromagnetic energy (such as the beam E when thesample element 302 is employed with the system 10) to pass to thewindows 304 b, 306 b. Other than the opening 342, the stiffening layer340 is preferably coextensive with the underside of the sample element302.

In other embodiments, a similar stiffening layer may be secured to theupper side of the sample element 302, instead of or in addition to thestiffening layer 340 depicted in FIGS. 19-20. Such an upper-sidestiffening layer may include a staggered portion to conform to thedifference in thickness between the reference and sample chambers 304,306 on the upper side of the sample element 302.

It is further contemplated that one or more stiffening layers similar tothe layer 340 may be employed with the sample element 120 disclosedabove, secured to one or both of the first and third layers 220, 240.

FIG. 21 depicts another embodiment of the sample element 302 discussedabove in connection with FIGS. 11-12 and 17-20. Except as furtherdetailed below, the embodiment of the sample element 302 depicted inFIG. 21 may be generally similar to the sample element 120 disclosedabove, and/or the sample elements 302 of FIGS. 11-12 and 17-20. Inaddition, the sample element 302 depicted in FIG. 21 may be employed inpracticing any of the sample-element referencing methods disclosedherein, including without limitation those methods discussed inconnection with the sample elements 302 depicted in FIGS. 11-12 and17-20.

The sample element 302 depicted in FIG. 21 further comprises stiffeningribs 350 which are integrally formed with one or both of the first andsecond referencing windows 304 a, 304 b. The stiffening ribs 350preferably extend across the entire length of the windows 304 a, 304 b,and may continue into the balance of the sample element 302. Thestiffening ribs 350 depicted in FIG. 21 are arranged to extendlongitudinally across the windows 304 a, 304 b so that they extendgenerally orthogonal to an optical axis of a beam of energy passedthrough the chamber 304 when the sample element 302 is employed inmeasuring analyte concentrations. For example, when the sample element302 is placed in the analyte detection system 10, the ribs 350 extendgenerally orthogonal to the major axis X and/or the energy beam E. Inother embodiments, the ribs 350 may extend in any direction, so long asthey are oriented to extend generally orthogonal to such an opticalaxis. Furthermore, the ribs 350 may be employed in any combination ofthe windows 304 a, 304 b, 306 a, 306 b, or the windows 202 c, 202 d ofthe sample element 120 .

In any of these embodiments, any suitable size, shape and number of ribsmay be employed, other than those depicted in FIG. 21. However, in oneembodiment, the configuration of ribs employed on the window 304 asubstantially matches that of the window 306 a, and the configuration ofribs employed on the window 304 b substantially matches that of thewindow 306 b. Such an arrangement may improve the accuracy of thesample-element referencing methods employed with the sample element 302.

The ribs 350 advantageously assist in preserving the planarity of thewindows 304 a, 304 b, 306 a, 306 b, thereby enhancing the accuracy ofanalyte-concentration measurements taken with the sample element 302.Although various computational algorithms are disclosed below forpreserving measurement accuracy despite imperfections in sample-elementgeometry (e.g., pathlength, window planarity, window parallelism), theribs 350 may be employed instead of or in addition to variouscombinations of such algorithms when measuring analyte concentrations.

IV. ALGORITHMS

This section discusses a number of computational methods or algorithmswhich may be used to calculate the concentration of the analyte(s) ofinterest in the sample S, and/or to compute other measures that may beused in support of calculations of analyte concentrations. Any one orcombination of the algorithms disclosed in this section may reside asprogram instructions in the memory 185 so as to be accessible forexecution by the processor 180 of the analyte detection system 10 tocompute the concentration of the analyte(s) of interest in the sample,or other relevant measures. Alternatively, any one or combination of thealgorithms disclosed in this section may be executed by or in connectionwith a Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer (FTIR) device, such asthe SPECTRUM ONE model available from Perkin-Elmer Inc., of Wellesley,Mass., for determining analyte concentrations or other measures. Inaddition, any one or combination of the algorithms disclosed in thissection may be employed in connection with any of the embodiments of themethod 190 depicted in FIG. 7 and discussed above. For example, thedisclosed algorithms may be employed to compute the concentration of theanalyte(s) of interest in the sample S from (any) final transmittancevalues TF_(λ1), TF_(λ2), . . . TF_(λn) output by the method 190.

A. Methods for Determining Analyte Concentrations

In many measurements, the contribution from the analyte of interest(e.g., glucose) to the measured absorption spectrum is often only asmall percentage of the contribution from other substances within thesample. For example, blood by volume is typically composed of about 70%water, about 30% solids, mostly protein, and only about 0.1% glucose.Blood also includes other species such as urea, alanine, and in somecases alcohol or other sugars such as fructose. Similarly, plasmaincludes only a small percentage of glucose, as well as other species.Therefore, blood or plasma glucose measurements are highly sensitive andvulnerable to inaccuracies.

If an accurate glucose measurement is desired, the characteristics ofeach of the different constituents of the sample should be considered.Because the sample absorption at any given wavelength is a sum of theabsorptions of each component of the sample at that wavelength, IRabsorption measurements are complicated by the presence of these othercomponents. Consequently, to allow effective compensation andadjustments to measured IR absorption for the presence of othercomponents of the blood or plasma, it is helpful to understand whichconstituents are present in the sample, understand their effects on theanalyte that is being measured (such as glucose), and correct for anydifferences that intrinsic and measuring-device-related variables maycause.

Advantageously, absorption data in the mid-IR spectral region (forexample, about 4 microns to about 11 microns) are used. Although wateris the main contributor to the total absorption across this spectralregion, the peaks and other structures present in the blood or plasmaspectrum from about 6.8 microns to 10.5 microns are due to theabsorption spectra of other components of the blood or plasma. The 4 to11 micron region has been found advantageous because glucose has astrong absorption peak structure from about 8.5 to 10 microns, whereasmost other constituents of the blood or plasma have a low and flatabsorption spectrum in the 8.5 to 10 micron range. The main exceptionsare water and hemoglobin, both of which absorb fairly strongly in thisregion, and which are also the two most significant components in termsof concentration in the blood or plasma. Certain embodiments of thetechniques described herein are thus directed to removing thecontributions of water and hemoglobin from this spectral region toresolve the contribution, and thus concentration, of glucose in thesample.

B. Pathlength-Insensitive Determinations of Analyte Concentrations

In certain embodiments, a method determines an analyte concentration ina sample comprising the analyte and a substance. The method comprisesproviding an absorption spectrum of the sample, with the absorptionspectrum having an absorption baseline. The method further comprisesshifting the absorption spectrum so that the absorption baselineapproximately equals a selected absorption value in a selectedabsorption wavelength range. The method further comprises subtracting asubstance contribution from the absorption spectrum. Thus, the methodprovides a corrected absorption spectrum substantially free of acontribution from the substance.

In certain embodiments, providing the absorption spectrum comprisesproviding the transmittance spectrum of the sample, with thetransmittance spectrum having a transmittance baseline. In certainembodiments, the transmittance spectrum of the sample is provided bytransmitting at least a portion of an infrared signal through thesample. The infrared signal comprises a plurality of wavelengths. Theportion of the infrared signal transmitted through the sample ismeasured as a function of wavelength. Various configurations and devicescan be used to provide the transmittance spectrum in accordance withembodiments described herein.

In certain embodiments, the transmittance baseline is defined to be thevalue of the transmittance spectrum at wavelengths at whichtransmittance is a minimum. For blood, this value is typically at about6.1-6.2 microns where water and hemoglobin both are strong absorbers.While the transmittance spectrum from the sample at these wavelengths isexpected to be nearly zero, various effects, such as instrumental errorand thermal drift, can result in a nonzero contribution to thetransmittance baseline. In addition, effects such as instrumental errorand thermal drift can result in a wavelength shift of known features inthe transmittance spectrum from the expected wavelengths of thesefeatures.

In certain such embodiments, providing the absorption spectrum comprisesshifting the transmittance spectrum so that the transmittance baselineapproximately equals zero in a selected transmittance wavelength range.In certain embodiments in which the sample comprises blood or plasma,the selected transmittance wavelength range comprises wavelengths atwhich the transmittance is a minimum. In certain such embodiments, theselected transmittance wavelength range comprises wavelengths betweenapproximately 6 microns and approximately 6.15 microns. In other suchembodiments, the selected transmittance wavelength range compriseswavelengths between approximately 12 microns and approximately 13microns. The transmittance spectrum at these wavelengths may bepartially affected by contributions from various components that arepresent at low concentration levels. In still other such embodiments,the selected transmittance wavelength range comprises wavelengthsapproximately equal to 3 microns. Each of these wavelengths correspondsto a strong water absorption peak.

In embodiments in which there is a nonzero contribution to thetransmittance baseline, the transmittance spectrum may be shifted. Incertain embodiments, the transmittance spectrum is shifted so that thetransmittance spectrum in the wavelength range of 6 to 6.2 microns isapproximately equal to zero. In embodiments in which known features areshifted in wavelength from their expected wavelengths, the transmittancespectrum can be shifted in wavelength. In addition, the shifting of thetransmittance spectrum can be performed nonlinearly (e.g., shiftingdifferent wavelengths by differing amounts across the transmittancespectrum).

Providing the absorption spectrum further comprises determining theabsorption spectrum from the transmittance spectrum. In certainembodiments, the relation between the transmittance spectrum and theabsorption spectrum is expressed as:

${{A(\lambda)} = {\ln\left( \frac{1}{T(\lambda)} \right)}},$where λ is the wavelength, A(λ) is the absorption as a function ofwavelength, and T(λ) is the transmittance as a function of wavelength.

In certain embodiments, the method comprises shifting the absorptionspectrum so that its absorption baseline approximately equals a selectedabsorption value (such as 0, 0.5, 1, etc.) in a selected absorptionwavelength range. In certain embodiments, the absorption baseline can beselected to be defined by a portion of the absorption spectrum with lowabsorption. In certain embodiments in which the sample comprises bloodor plasma, the selected absorption wavelength range compriseswavelengths between approximately 3.8 microns and approximately 4.4microns. In certain other embodiments, the selected absorptionwavelength range comprises wavelengths between 9 microns andapproximately 10 microns.

In certain other embodiments in which the sample comprises blood, theabsorption baseline is defined to be the magnitude of the absorptionspectrum at an isosbestic wavelength at which water and a whole bloodprotein have approximately equal absorptions. In such embodiments, theabsorption spectrum is shifted to a selected value at the isosbesticwavelength by adding or subtracting a constant offset value across theentire wavelength spectral data set. In addition, the shifting of theabsorption spectrum can be performed nonlinearly (e.g., shifting theportions of the absorption spectrum in different wavelength ranges bydifferent amounts). Shifting the absorption spectrum such that theabsorption is set to some value (e.g., 0) at a protein-water isosbesticpoint preferably helps remove the dependence on hemoglobin level of theoverall spectrum position relative to zero. For samples comprisingplasma containing whole blood protein, similar techniques can beapplied.

The effective isosbestic point can be expected to be different fordifferent proteins in different solutions. Exemplary whole bloodproteins include, but are not limited to, hemoglobin, albumin, globulin,and ferritin. These isosbestic wavelengths can be used to obtain acurrent measure of the effective optical pathlength in the filledcuvette, either before or during measurements at other wavelengthranges.

Such information is very useful in subsequent calculations forcompensation of instrument-related pathlength non-linearities. Becausethe measured absorption of the protein and water are identical at theisosbestic wavelength, the measured absorption at the isosbesticwavelength is independent of the ratios of the protein concentration andthe water concentration (hematocrit level). At an isosbestic wavelength,for a given sample volume, the same amount of absorption would beobserved whether the sample was entirely water, entirely protein, orsome combination of the two. The absorption at the isosbestic wavelengthis then an indication of the total sample volume, independent of therelative concentrations of water and protein. Therefore, the observedabsorption at an isosbestic wavelength is a measure of the pathlength ofthe sample only. In certain embodiments, the observed absorption at anisosbestic wavelength can be useful for measuring the effective opticalpathlength for a sample. As a result, various embodiments of theabove-described method may be employed to accurately determine theconcentration of analyte(s) of interest in a sample independent ofoptical pathlength, i.e. without need for prior knowledge of thepathlength and/or without requiring that the sample chamber of thesample element conform closely to a specified or expected pathlength.Additionally, such information can be used in subsequent calculationsfor compensation of instrument-related pathlength nonlinearities. Incertain embodiments, these measurements can be made before orconcurrently with absorption measurements in other wavelength ranges.

C. Subtraction of Absorption Due to Non-Analyte Components of Sample

In certain embodiments, a method of analyzing blood absorption data hastwo major components: data clean-up and spectroscopic analysis. The goalof the data clean-up is to remove instrumental artifacts from the data,so that what remains is an accurate representation of the blood spectra.This method is machine- and protocol-related and the clean-up requiredfor Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrometer data is considerablydifferent from the clean-up required for discrete-wavelengthtransmission data. While the exemplary embodiments discussed below areapplied to blood absorption data, other embodiments can be applied toplasma absorption data as well.

The goal of the spectroscopic analysis is to derive the ratio of theanalyte volume (for example, glucose volume) to the total blood volumeusing essentially artifact-free spectra. The blood samples are primarilya mixture of three components: plasma, hematocrit soup and glucose asillustrated in FIG. 22. As illustrated in FIG. 22, “hematocrit soup”comprises the combination or mixture of the components of blood otherthan the plasma and glucose components.

Certain embodiments of the method are based on knowledge of referenceabsorption spectra for each of the three components. The protein contentof plasma is ignored in pooled-blood embodiments, because it is the samefor each blood sample. This is a liberty that can be taken with pooledblood but that cannot be extended to individual blood samples, whereadditional components will be required. The reference spectra for water(plasma) and the analyte (for example, glucose) can be determined withFTIR measurements. The reference spectra for the hemocrit soup can bedetermined from the differential hemoglobin spectra calculated using theblood data.

One goal of the spectroscopic analysis can be to derive the ratio of theanalyte volume (for example, glucose volume) to the total blood volume.The process of measuring a glucose concentration can include subtractingone or more contributions to the absorption spectrum from othersubstances in the blood that interfere with the detection of theglucose. In certain embodiments, a reference substance absorptionspectrum is provided and is scaled by multiplying it by a scalingfactor. The scaled reference substance absorption spectrum is subtractedfrom the measured absorption spectrum. This procedure thus preferablyprovides the corrected absorption spectrum which is substantially freeof a contribution from the substance.

Such procedures can be used to subtract the absorption contributions ofwater and/or hemoglobin, as well as other constituents of blood orplasma. In addition, the scaling factor provides a measure of theabsorption due to the substance of the reference substance absorptionspectrum. As described more fully below, in embodiments in whichmultiple scaling factors are determined for multiple substances, ratiosof the scaling factors provide information regarding the concentrationratios of the substances in question. These determinations of theconcentration ratios are substantially independent of the opticalpathlength through the sample. Such concentration ratios can be used todetermine the concentration of a selected substance within the sampleregardless of the optical path length through the sample.

In certain embodiments, the measured absorption spectrum can be furthercorrected for other contributions which are not due to the analyte ofinterest. In certain such embodiments, the measured absorption spectrumcan be corrected for a substance which interferes with determining theanalyte concentration. In certain embodiments in which the samplecomprises a second substance which interferes with determining theanalyte concentration to a lesser extent than does the substance, themeasured absorption spectrum can be further corrected by calculating asecond substance contribution of the absorption data and subtracting thesecond substance contribution from the absorption data, therebyproviding corrected absorption data substantially free of a contributionfrom the second substance.

For example, alcohol is a potentially interfering substance with theglucose measurement because the absorption of alcohol is similar to thatof glucose in the wavelength range of interest. It is observed that thepeak height ratio of the absorption peak at about 9.6 microns to theabsorption peak at about 9.2 microns for pure glucose is approximately1.1-1.2, and the ratio for pure alcohol is approximately 3.0-3.2. Thisratio of peak heights varies between these two values for absorptionspectra for mixtures of glucose and alcohol. Thus, the peak height ratiocan be used to determine the relative concentrations of alcohol andglucose. The contribution from alcohol can then be subtracted from themeasured absorption spectrum. In certain embodiments, the process can berepeated for other analytes of interest in sufficient quantities.

In certain embodiments, the measured absorption spectrum can becorrected for contributions from free protein, which has an absorptionpeak centered around 7.1 microns. In certain other embodiments, themeasured absorption spectrum can be further corrected for contributionsfrom a boundary layer between water and a whole blood protein. Featuresin the measured absorption spectrum due to components of the boundarylayer arise from interactions between the water and whole blood protein.These spectral features are ascribed to “bound” components or hydratedprotein. The corresponding contributions across the measured absorptionspectrum can be corrected by subtracting the appropriate scaledreference absorption, such that the corrected absorption spectrum isapproximately zero for a selected range of wavelengths. In certainembodiments, the range of wavelengths is between about 7.0 and 7.2microns, or alternatively between 7.9 and 8.1 microns, or alternativelyat a combination of wavelength ranges.

Temperature also affects the correct subtraction of the watercontribution to the total spectrum because the absorption spectrum ofwater changes with temperature changes. It is therefore advantageous forthe system to store several different water reference spectra, with eachone applicable to a selected temperature range. The appropriatereference would be selected for scaling and subtraction based on thetemperature of the sample. In some embodiments, hardware such asthermocouples, heaters, and the like may be provided to directly measureor control the temperature of the sample. Although this approach may besuitable at times, it can be difficult to accurately measure and controlthe blood temperature as the sample size is very small, and the actualblood temperature may vary from the cuvette temperature or the ambienttemperature surrounding the cuvette.

The contribution of temperature to the absorption spectra canalternatively be addressed by analyzing the sample spectrum itself,because different parts of the water absorption spectrum are affected bytemperature by different amounts. For example, the absorbance differenceof the water absorption spectrum between about 4.9 microns and 5.15microns is not very dependent on temperature, whereas the absorbancedifference between 4.65 microns and 4.9 microns is highly temperaturedependent. As temperature changes for a given sample with constant waterconcentration, the absorbance difference between 4.65 and 4.9 micronswill change a lot, and the absorbance difference between 4.9 and 5.15microns will not change much at all. Thus, the ratio of the absorbancedifference between two points having high temperature dependence (e.g.,4.65 and 4.9 microns) to the absorbance difference between two pointshaving low temperature dependence (e.g., 4.9 and 5.15 microns) can beused as a measure of temperature. Once this measurement is made, anappropriate selection from several different stored water referencecurves can be made.

In certain embodiments, the reference substance absorption spectrum isprovided by correcting a stored spectrum for wavelength-dependentnonlinearities. For example, where the substance comprises water,knowledge of the optical pathlength (based on the total sampleabsorption at one or more isosbestic wavelengths) as well as themeasured absorption at one or more wavelengths dominated by waterabsorption (e.g., between approximately 4.5 and 5 microns) can be usedto correct a stored reference water absorption spectrum for wavelengthnonlinearities across the spectrum. Such corrections of the storedreference spectrum are advantageous for reducing distortions in thefinal results. Similarly, prior knowledge of optical pathlength based ontotal sample absorption at an isosbestic wavelength, as well as on totalprotein absorption in a selected wavelength range (e.g., 7.0-7.2microns, or 7.9-8.1 microns) allows for the modification of a referenceprotein absorption spectrum that is compensated for nonlinearities.Other wavelength-dependent nonlinearities to be corrected for can beproduced by the sample element, including, but not limited to,scattering and fringing.

In certain embodiments, after correcting the measured absorptionspectrum for contributions of one or more substances, the correctedabsorption spectrum is fitted with reference analyte spectral data toprovide a measure of the analyte concentration. The reference analytespectral data can include data at a wavelength near an analyteabsorption maximum. For example, the absorption spectrum of glucoseincludes various peaks, with the two largest peaks at wavelengths ofapproximately 9.25 and 9.65 microns, respectively. The absorptiondifference of the corrected absorption spectrum between a wavelength ofabout 8.5 microns and a wavelength of approximately 9.65 microns canprovide a measure of the glucose concentration in the blood sample.Following the definition of glucose in blood (i.e., a measure of glucoseper volume of the sample), a useful measure for glucose concentration ispreferably obtained from algorithmically-derived infrared quantities bydividing the final glucose quantity by total water, total protein, oralternatively a combination of both.

Although the above discussion focuses on data sets comprisingmeasurements over the entire range of IR wavelengths, it will beappreciated that it is not necessary to obtain data across the entirespectrum, but only at the discrete wavelengths used in the analysis. Incertain embodiments where water and hemoglobin contributions aresubtracted from a whole blood spectrum to find glucose concentration, aslittle as ten or fewer total measurements are needed. Additionalcomponents to be subtracted may require one or two more measurementseach.

For example, to characterize the water contribution, measurements atabout 4.7 microns and 5.3 microns may be obtained. For characterizinghemoglobin, measurements at about 8.0 and 8.4 microns may be obtained.The glucose characterization may involve a measure of the differencebetween about 8.5 microns and 9.6 microns. This is six values, two foreach component. In embodiments where it is desired to zero thetransmittance curve and shift the absorbance values, it may be desirableto further make transmittance measurements at about the 6.1 micron waterabsorbance peak and the 4.1 micron water/protein isosbestic point. Asdescribed above, the addition of another data point at about 4.9 micronsallows the determination of temperature. Another measurement at thelower alcohol peak of about 9.25 microns can be used to compensate theglucose measurement for alcohol content as well as is also describedabove. In certain embodiments, the values of optical density at thesesix wavelengths can be expressed as six linear equations which can besolved to yield the glucose concentration path length and the ratio ofglucose volume to total blood volume.

In certain embodiments, the method uses the optical density (OD) for aparallel cuvette, parallel illumination and “delta-function” filter,which can be expressed as:OD _(i)=(c _(w)α_(wi) +c _(h)α_(hi) +c _(g)α_(gi))·d  (1)

-   -   where:        -   d=cuvette path length;        -   c_(w)=water volume concentration;        -   c_(h)=hematocrit soup volume concentration;        -   c_(g)=glucose volume concentration;        -   α_(wi)=water absorption at wavelength ‘i’; and        -   α_(hi)=hematocrit soup absorption at wavelength ‘i’; and        -   α_(gi)=glucose absorption at wavelength ‘i’.

The absorption of the various components (e.g., α_(wi), α_(hi), α_(gi))at various wavelengths is a property of the components themselves, andcan be known or provided to the system for use in the calculation of theanalyte concentrations. In various embodiments described below, theblood sample is modeled as a three-component mixture of water,hematocrit soup, and glucose (i.e., c_(w)+c_(h)+c_(g)=1). Otherembodiments can model the blood sample with more components, fewercomponents, or different components.

In certain embodiments, the method uses three two-wavelength sets. Thefirst set is in the wavelength region where water absorption dominates.The second set is in a region where water and hematocrit soupabsorptions dominate, and the third set in a region where absorptionsfrom all three components dominate. In certain embodiments, thecalculations are based on OD differences of each wavelength pair toreduce or minimize offsets and baseline drift errors. Absorption valuesfor the three components at each of the six wavelengths are shown inTable 1:

Wavelength α_(wi) α_(hi) α_(gi) 1 α_(w1) 0 0 2 α_(w2) 0 0 3 α_(w3)α_(h3) 0 4 α_(w4) α_(h4) 0 5 α_(w5) α_(h5) α_(g5) 6 α_(w6) α_(h6) α_(g6)

Substituting these values from Table 1 into Equation (1) yields thefollowing relations:OD ₁ =c _(w)α_(w1) d;  (2)OD ₂ =c _(w)α_(w2) d;  (3)OD ₃=(c _(w)α_(w3) +c _(h)α_(h3))·d;  (4)OD ₄=(c _(w)α_(w4) +c _(h)α_(h4))·d;  (5)OD ₅=(c _(w)α_(w5) +c _(h)α_(h5) +c _(g)α_(g5))·d; and  (6)OD ₆=(c _(w)α_(w6) +c _(h)α_(h6) +c _(g)α_(g6))·d.  (7)

Certain embodiments of the method comprise computing the quantity Awhich is equal to the product of the water concentration and the pathlength. The quantity A can be termed the “water scaling factor,” and canbe expressed by the following relation:

$\begin{matrix}{A = {\frac{{OD}_{2} - {OD}_{1}}{\left( {\alpha_{w2} - \alpha_{w1}} \right)} = {c_{w}{d.}}}} & (8)\end{matrix}$In certain embodiments in which the values of water absorption at thetwo wavelengths is known or provided to the system, this ratio of thedifference of two measured absorption values with the difference of tworeference absorption values at the same wavelengths yields a waterscaling factor A indicative of the amount of water in the sample.

Using A and the water absorptions at each wavelength, the “water free”OD can then be calculated and expressed by the following relation:OD _(i) ′=OD _(i) −Aα _(wi).  (9)In this way, the “water free” OD value equals the measured OD valueminus the scaled reference absorption value for water. CombiningEquation (9) and Equations (4)-(7) yields the following relations:OD ₃ ′=c _(h)α_(h3) d;  (10)OD ₄ ′=c _(h)α_(h4) d;  (11)OD ₅′=(c _(h)α_(h5) +c _(g)α_(g5))·d; and  (12)OD ₆′=(c _(h)α_(h6) +c _(g)α_(g6))·d.  (13)

In certain embodiments, the “water free” absorptions at wavelengths 3and 4 are used to calculate the quantity B which is proportional to theproduct of the hemocrit soup concentration and path length. The quantityB can be termed the “hemocrit soup scaling factor,” and can be expressedby the following relation:

$\begin{matrix}{B = {\frac{{OD}_{4}^{\prime} - {OD}_{3}^{\prime}}{\alpha_{h4} - \alpha_{h3}} = {c_{h}{d.}}}} & (14)\end{matrix}$

In certain embodiments in which the values of hematocrit soup absorptionat the two wavelengths is known or provided to the system, this ratio ofthe difference of two “water free” OD values with the difference of tworeference absorption values for hematocrit soup at the same wavelengthsyields a hematocrit soup scaling factor B indicative of the amount ofhematocrit soup in the sample.

By using B and the hematocrit soup absorptions at each wavelength, the“glucose only” OD is calculated in certain embodiments to be expressedby the following relation:OD _(i) ″=OD _(i) ′−Bα _(hi).  (15)

In this way, the “glucose only” OD value equals the measured OD valueminus the scaled reference absorption values for water and forhematocrit soup.

From Equations (15), (12) and (13), the following relations can becalculated:OD ₅ ″=c _(g)α_(g5) d; and  (16)OD ₆ ″=c _(g)α_(g6) d.  (17)

The glucose concentration path length product, given by the quantity C,can be termed the “glucose scaling factor,” and can be expressed by thefollowing relation:

$\begin{matrix}{C = {\frac{{OD}_{6}^{''} - {OD}_{5}^{''}}{\alpha_{g6} - \alpha_{g5}} = {c_{g}{d.}}}} & (18)\end{matrix}$In certain embodiments in which the values of glucose absorption at thetwo wavelengths is known or provided to the system, this ratio of thedifference of two “glucose only” OD values with the difference of tworeference absorption values for glucose at the same wavelengths yields aglucose scaling factor C indicative of the amount of glucose in thesample.

The desired ratio of glucose volume to total blood volume can then beexpressed (using the relation c_(w)+c_(h)+c_(g)=1) by the followingrelation:

$\begin{matrix}{c_{g} = {\frac{c_{g}*d}{\left( {c_{w} + c_{h} + c_{g}} \right)} = {\frac{C}{A + B + C}.}}} & (19)\end{matrix}$

By taking the ratio of the glucose scaling factor to the sum of thewater scaling factor, the hematocrit soup scaling factor, and theglucose scaling factor, the resulting concentration ratio C_(g) issubstantially independent of the path length of the sample. Thus,certain embodiments described herein provide a method of determining theglucose content of a blood sample independent of the path length of theblood sample.

D. System and Temperature Effects on Absorption

In certain embodiments, various non-analyte contributions to themeasured absorption spectrum can be determined. Absorption by blood inthe wavelength region from approximately 4.4 to 5.5 microns is primarilydue to water. Transmission or absorption measurements in this “waterregion” can be used to determine the water content of the blood samplewithout considering other blood constituents. At other wavelengths, themeasurements depend on the concentrations and spectral properties ofother blood components. In certain embodiments, the measurements canalso be influenced by non-analyte contributions, including but notlimited to, finite filter widths, blood temperature, filter temperatureand cuvette shape. In certain embodiments, these effects can becorrected at each wavelength before calculating the blood componentconcentrations. The water region offers a convenient wavelength range toseparate system and temperature effects from component concentrationeffects. Certain embodiments of the analysis method utilize a model fortransmission of a water-filled cuvette illuminated with parallel lightas a function of cuvette shape, water temperature, filter temperature,and filter shape. Embodiments are described herein which use data fromthe water region to determine system parameters for both non-paralleland parallel cuvettes.

In certain embodiments, the resulting absorption spectrum (e.g., afterbeing corrected for instrumental drift, optical pathlength, distortions,and contributions from major components) can be fitted with a referenceglucose absorption spectrum to remove the glucose contribution. Thisabsorption spectrum can be used further for individual determination ofresidual components. In certain embodiments, the residual componentsinclude high molecular weight substances, including but not limited to,other proteins, albumin, hemoglobin, fibrinogen, lipoproteins, andtransferring. In certain embodiments, the residual components includelow molecular weight substances, including but not limited to, urea,lactate, and vitamin C. The final glucose measure can be corrected forthe presence of such lower level potentially interfering substances bysubtracting reference spectra of specific substances, such as urea, fromthe residual data.

1. Integral Form of Optical Density

FIG. 23 schematically illustrates a water-filled non-parallel cuvetteilluminated with parallel light that has passed through an opticalfilter with known bandwidth and filter shape. In FIG. 23, the x-axis isperpendicular to the optic axis, the cuvette shape (path length as afunction of x) is defined by the function d(x), and the cuvette width is2w. The transmission through a filter for a water-filled non-parallelcuvette with parallel illumination can be expressed by the followingrelation:

$\begin{matrix}{\tau_{n} = {{\frac{1}{N_{n}} \cdot \frac{1}{2w}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda}\;{f_{n}(\lambda)}{\int_{- w}^{w}{{\mathbb{d}x}\;{\exp\left\lbrack {{- {\alpha(\lambda)}}{\mathbb{d}(x)}} \right\rbrack}}}}}}} & (20)\end{matrix}$where

-   -   α(λ)=water absorption;    -   ƒ_(n)(λ)=filter transmission;    -   N_(n)=filter normalization;    -   d(x)=cuvette path length; and    -   2w=cuvette width.        The filter normalization can be expressed by the following        relation:        N _(n) =∫dλƒ _(n)(λ),  (21)        and the path length across the cuvette can be expressed by the        following relation:        d(x)=d _(avg)+δ(x),  (22)        where d is the average path length and the following relation is        true:

$\begin{matrix}{{\int_{- w}^{w}{{\mathbb{d}x}\;{\delta(x)}}} = 0.} & (23)\end{matrix}$

a. Expression of Integral Optical Density as Sum of Terms

In certain embodiments, the natural log optical density can be derivedin the following manner. By substituting Equation (22) into Equation(20), the transmission can be expressed by the following relation:

$\begin{matrix}{\tau_{n} = {{\frac{1}{N_{n}} \cdot \frac{1}{2w}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda}\;{f_{n}(\lambda)}{\exp\;\left\lbrack {{- {\alpha(\lambda)}}d_{avg}} \right\rbrack}{\int_{- w}^{w}{{\mathbb{d}x}\;{\exp\left\lbrack {{- {\alpha(\lambda)}}{\delta(x)}} \right\rbrack}}}}}}} & (24)\end{matrix}$Using the following relations:Δ_(n)(λ)≡−(α_(n))−α(λ), and  (25)

$\begin{matrix}{{\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle \equiv {\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda} \cdot {f_{n}(\lambda)} \cdot {\alpha(\lambda)}}}}},} & (26)\end{matrix}$the transmission can be expressed by the following relation:

$\begin{matrix}{{\tau_{n} = {{\exp\left\lbrack {{- \left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle}d_{avg}} \right\rbrack}{\frac{1}{N_{n}} \cdot \frac{1}{2w}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda}\;{f_{n}(\lambda)}{\exp\left\lbrack {{- {\Delta_{n}(\lambda)}}d_{avg}} \right\rbrack}{\int_{- w}^{w}{{\mathbb{d}x}\;{\exp\left\lbrack {{- {\alpha(\lambda)}}{\delta(x)}} \right\rbrack}}}}}}},} & (27)\end{matrix}$which can be rewritten to be expressed by the following relation:

$\begin{matrix}{{\tau_{n} = {{\exp\left\lbrack {{- \left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle}d_{avg}} \right\rbrack}\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda}\;{f_{n}(\lambda)}{K(\lambda)}{\exp\left\lbrack {{- {\Delta_{n}(\lambda)}}\mathbb{d}_{avg}} \right\rbrack}}}}},} & (28)\end{matrix}$where

$\begin{matrix}{{K(\lambda)} \equiv {\frac{1}{2w}{\int_{- w}^{w}{{\mathbb{d}x}\;{{\exp\left\lbrack {{- {\alpha(\lambda)}}{\delta(x)}} \right\rbrack}.}}}}} & (29)\end{matrix}$

Expanding the exponential of Equation (29) yields the followingrelation:

$\begin{matrix}{{K(\lambda)} \equiv {\frac{1}{2w}{\int_{- w}^{w}{{\mathbb{d}{x\left( {1 - {{\alpha(\lambda)}{\delta(x)}} + {\frac{1}{2}{\alpha(\lambda)}^{2}{\delta(x)}^{2}} + {h.o.t.}} \right)}}.}}}} & (30)\end{matrix}$The first integral is equal to one, the second integral is equal tozero, using Equation (23). Thus, K(λ) can be expressed by the followingrelation:

$\begin{matrix}{{K(\lambda)} \equiv {1 + {\frac{1}{2}\frac{1}{2w}{\int_{- w}^{w}{{\mathbb{d}{x\left\lbrack {{{\alpha(\lambda)}^{2}{\delta(x)}^{2}} + {h.o.t.}} \right\rbrack}}.}}}}} & (31)\end{matrix}$

The distortion parameter A can be defined by the following relation:

$\begin{matrix}{{A \equiv {\frac{1}{2}\frac{1}{2w}{\int_{- w}^{w}{{\mathbb{d}x} \cdot {\delta(x)}^{2}}}}},} & (32)\end{matrix}$and K(λ) can be expressed by the following relation:K(λ)=1+Aα(λ)² +h.o.t.  (33)

Neglecting the higher order terms and substituting Equation (33) intoEquation (28), the transmission can be expressed by the followingrelation:

$\begin{matrix}{\tau_{n} = {{\exp\left\lbrack {{- \left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle}d_{avg}} \right\rbrack}\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda}\;{{f_{n}(\lambda)}\left\lbrack {1 + {A\;{\alpha(\lambda)}^{2}}} \right\rbrack}{{\exp\left\lbrack {{- {\Delta_{n}(\lambda)}}d_{avg}} \right\rbrack}.}}}}} & (34)\end{matrix}$

The transmission can be rewritten to be expressed by the followingrelation:τ_(n) =[J ₁ +J ₂]exp[−<α_(n) >d _(avg)],  (35)where:

$\begin{matrix}{{J_{1} = {\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda}\;{f_{n}(\lambda)}{\exp\left\lbrack {{- {\Delta_{n}(\lambda)}}d_{avg}} \right\rbrack}}}}},\mspace{11mu}{and}} & (36) \\{J_{2} = {\frac{A}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda}\;{f_{n}(\lambda)}{\alpha(\lambda)}^{2}{{\exp\left\lbrack {{- {\Delta_{n}(\lambda)}}d_{avg}} \right\rbrack}.}}}}} & (37)\end{matrix}$

By expanding the exponential in the first integral and keeping terms upto Δ_(n) ²(λ), Equation (36) can be rewritten to be expressed by thefollowing relation:

$\begin{matrix}{J_{1} = {\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{d_{avg}\lambda\;{{{f_{n}(\lambda)}\left\lbrack {1 - {{\Delta_{n}(\lambda)}{\mathbb{d}{+ \frac{1}{2}}}{\Delta_{n}^{2}(\lambda)}d_{avg}^{2}}} \right\rbrack}.}}}}} & (38)\end{matrix}$

Using Equations (25) and (26), the following relation can be written:∫dλƒ_(n)(λ)Δ_(n)(λ)=0,  (39)and Equation (36) can be rewritten to be expressed by the followingrelation:

$\begin{matrix}{J_{1} = {1 + {\frac{d_{avg}^{2}}{2}\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda}\;{f_{n}(\lambda)}{{\Delta_{n}^{2}(\lambda)}.}}}}}} & (40)\end{matrix}$The exponential in Equation (37) can be similarly expanded to beexpressed by the following relation:

$\begin{matrix}{J_{2} = {\frac{A}{N_{n}}{\int{d_{avg}\lambda\;{f_{n}(\lambda)}{{{\alpha(\lambda)}^{2}\left\lbrack {1 - {{\Delta_{n}(\lambda)}d_{avg}} + {\frac{1}{2}{\Delta_{n}^{2}(\lambda)}d_{avg}^{2}}} \right\rbrack}.}}}}} & (41)\end{matrix}$

Using Equation (25), Equation (37) can be rewritten to be expressed bythe following relation:

$\begin{matrix}{{J_{2} = {\frac{A}{N_{n}}{\int{d_{avg}\lambda\;{{{f_{n}(\lambda)}\left\lbrack {\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle - {\Delta_{n}(\lambda)}} \right\rbrack}^{2}\left\lbrack {1 - {{\Delta_{n}(\lambda)}d_{avg}} + {\frac{1}{2}{\Delta_{n}^{2}(\lambda)}d_{avg}^{2}}} \right\rbrack}}}}},} & (42)\end{matrix}$which, by completing the square, can be expressed by the followingrelation:

$\begin{matrix}{J_{2} = {\frac{A}{N_{n}}{\int{d\;\lambda\;{{{f_{n}(\lambda)}\left\lbrack {\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle^{2} - {2\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle{\Delta_{n}(\lambda)}} + {\Delta_{n}^{2}(\lambda)}} \right\rbrack} \cdot {\left\lbrack {1 - {{\Delta_{n}(\lambda)}d_{avg}} + {\frac{1}{2}{\Delta_{n}^{2}(\lambda)}d_{avg}^{2}}} \right\rbrack.}}}}}} & (43)\end{matrix}$Again, keeping terms up to order Δ_(n) ²(λ), J₂ can be expressed by thefollowing relation:

$\begin{matrix}{{J_{2} = {\frac{A}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda}\;{{f_{n}(\lambda)}\left\lbrack {\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle^{2} - {\left( {{2\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle} + {\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle^{2}d_{avg}}} \right){\Delta_{n}(\lambda)}} + {\left( {1 + {2\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle d_{avg}} + {\frac{1}{2}\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle^{2}d_{avg}^{2}}} \right){\Delta_{n}^{2}(\lambda)}}} \right\rbrack}}}}},} & (44)\end{matrix}$which after completing the integration can be expressed by the followingrelation:

$\begin{matrix}{J_{2} = {{A\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle^{2}} + {\frac{A}{N_{n}}\left( {1 - {2\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle d_{avg}} + {\frac{1}{2}\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle^{2}d_{avg}^{2}}} \right){\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda}\;{f_{n}(\lambda)}{{\Delta_{n}^{2}(\lambda)}.}}}}}} & (45)\end{matrix}$

The combination of Equations (40) and (45) can then be expressed by thefollowing relation:

$\begin{matrix}{{{J_{1} + J_{2}} = {1 + {\frac{1}{2}d_{avg}^{2}J_{3n}} + {A\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle^{2}} + {\frac{A}{N_{n}}\left( {1 - {2\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle d_{avg}} + {\frac{1}{2}\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle^{2}d_{avg}^{2}}} \right)J_{3n}}}},} & (46)\end{matrix}$where:

$\begin{matrix}{{{J_{3n} \equiv {\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda}\;{f_{n}(\lambda)}{\Delta_{n}^{2}(\lambda)}}}}} = {\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda} \cdot {f(\lambda)} \cdot \left( {{\alpha(\lambda)} - \left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle} \right)^{2}}}}},} & (47)\end{matrix}$which is the non-linear filter term.

Substituting Equation (46) into Equation (35) yields the followingrelation:

$\begin{matrix}{\tau_{n} = {\left\lbrack {1 + {\frac{1}{2}d_{avg}^{2}J_{3n}} + {A\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle^{2}} + {{A\left( {1 - {2\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle d_{avg}} + {\frac{1}{2}\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle^{2}d_{avg}^{2}}} \right)}J_{3n}}} \right\rbrack{{\exp\left\lbrack {{- \left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle}d_{avg}} \right\rbrack}.}}} & (48)\end{matrix}$

Taking the natural log of Equation (48), the optical density can beexpressed by the following relation:

$\begin{matrix}{{{OD}_{n} = {{- {\ln\left( \tau_{n} \right)}} = {{\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle d_{avg}} - {\ln\left\lbrack {1 + {\frac{1}{2}d_{avg}^{2}J_{3n}} + {A\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle^{2}} + {{A\left( {1 - {2\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle d_{avg}} + {\frac{1}{2}\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle^{2}d_{avg}^{2}}} \right)}J_{3n}}} \right\rbrack}}}},} & (49)\end{matrix}$Using the approximation: 1n(1+ε)≈ε, the optical density can be expressedby the following relation:

$\begin{matrix}{{OD}_{n} = {{\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle d_{avg}} - {\frac{1}{2}d_{avg}^{2}J_{3n}} - {A\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle^{2}} - {{{AJ}_{3n}\left( {1 - {2\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle d_{avg}} + {\frac{1}{2}\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle^{2}d_{avg}^{2}}} \right)}.}}} & (50)\end{matrix}$

The first term on the right hand side of Equation (50) is equal to theaverage water absorption through the filter multiplied by the pathlength. The second term is a correction due to finite filter width andshape. The third term is a correction due to the cuvette shape, and thelast term is a cross-term resulting from finite filter width and cuvetteshape. Thus, for a water-filled cuvette irradiated by light transmittedthrough a filter “n,” the optical density can be expressed as beingequal to the average water absorption through the filter multiplied bythe pathlength, plus a correction term due to the finite filter widthand shape, plus a correction term due to the cuvette shape, and across-term resulting from finite filter width and cuvette shape.Equation (50) is preferably applied to a restricted range of cuvetteshapes and filter widths. As the filters get wider and/or the cuvetteshape variations larger, additional terms are preferably used.Simulations, using known properties of water, can be used to show thatthe terms in Equation (50) sufficiently model the conditions in a bloodtransmission apparatus.

2. Temperature Effects on Measured Optical Density

There are two primary temperature effects. First, the absorption ofwater is temperature-dependent. Second, the filter center wavelengthshifts with temperature. Both of these effects causetemperature-dependent changes of the measured transmission. Thetemperature effects can be modeled by treating the filter transmissionfunctions as fixed and adjusting the water absorption to account for thechange in water temperature and shifting the water absorption to accountfor the filter temperature. The absorption as a function of temperaturechange can be expressed by the following relation:α_(n)(λ)=α_(o)(λ)+β(λ)ΔT_(w)+γ_(n)(λ)ΔT _(ƒ)+ξ_(n)(λ)ΔT _(w) ΔT_(ƒ)  (51)where α_(o)(λ)=water absorption at ΔT_(w)=ΔT_(ƒ)=0, and

$\begin{matrix}{{{\beta(\lambda)} = {\frac{{\delta\alpha}_{o}(\lambda)}{\delta\; T_{w}} = {{absorption}\mspace{14mu}{water}\mspace{14mu}{temperature}\mspace{20mu}{sensitivity}}}},} & (52) \\{{{\gamma_{n}(\lambda)} = {\frac{{\delta\alpha}_{o}(\lambda)}{\delta\; T_{f}} = {{\frac{{\delta\alpha}_{o}(\lambda)}{\delta\;\lambda} \cdot \frac{{\delta\lambda}_{n}}{\delta\; T_{f}}} = {{absorption}\mspace{14mu}{filter}\mspace{14mu}{temperature}\mspace{14mu}{sensitivity}}}}},} & (53) \\{{\xi_{n}(\lambda)} = {\frac{\delta^{2}{\alpha_{o}(\lambda)}}{\delta\; T_{w}\delta\; T_{f}} = {\frac{{\delta\beta}(\lambda)}{\delta\; T_{f}} = {{\frac{{\delta\beta}(\lambda)}{d\;\lambda} \cdot \frac{d\;\lambda_{n}}{\delta\; T_{f}}} = {{cross}\text{-}{term}\mspace{14mu}{or}\mspace{14mu}{the}\mspace{14mu}{change}\mspace{14mu}{in}\mspace{14mu}{\beta(\lambda)}}}}}} & (54)\end{matrix}$with filter temperature,

-   -   ΔT_(w)=water temperature change,    -   ΔT_(ƒ)=filter temperature change, and

$\frac{d\;\lambda_{n}}{\delta\; T_{f}} = {{{filter}\mspace{20mu}}^{''}n^{''}\mspace{14mu}{temperature}\mspace{14mu}{{sensitivity}.}}$

Substituting Equation (51) into Equation (26) yields the followingrelation:<α_(n)>=<α_(on)>+<β_(n) >ΔT _(w)+<γ_(n) >ΔT _(ƒ)+<ξ_(n) >ΔT _(w) ΔT_(ƒ),  (55)where N_(n)=∫dλƒ_(n)(λ), and

$\begin{matrix}{{\left\langle q_{n} \right\rangle \equiv {\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda} \cdot {f_{n}(\lambda)} \cdot {q(\lambda)}}}}},{{which}\mspace{14mu}{corresponds}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{the}\mspace{14mu}{following}\mspace{14mu}{relations}\text{:}}} & (56) \\{{\left\langle \alpha_{on} \right\rangle = {\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda} \cdot {f_{n}(\lambda)} \cdot {\alpha_{o}(\lambda)}}}}},} & (56.1) \\{{\left\langle \beta_{n} \right\rangle = {\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda} \cdot {f_{n}(\lambda)} \cdot {\beta(\lambda)}}}}},} & (56.2) \\{{\left\langle \gamma_{n} \right\rangle = {\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda} \cdot {f_{n}(\lambda)} \cdot {\gamma_{n}(\lambda)}}}}},{and}} & (56.3) \\{\left\langle \xi_{n} \right\rangle = {\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda} \cdot {f_{n}(\lambda)} \cdot {{\xi_{n}(\lambda)}.}}}}} & (56.4)\end{matrix}$

Equation (50) can be expressed by the following relation:OD _(n)=<α_(on) >d _(avg)+<β_(n) >ΔT _(w) d _(avg)+<γ_(n) >ΔT _(ƒ) d_(avg)+(α_(n))² A+T _(n),  (57)where

$\begin{matrix}{T_{n} = {{\left\langle \xi_{n} \right\rangle\Delta\; T_{w}\Delta\; T_{f}d_{avg}} - {\frac{1}{2}d_{avg}^{2}J_{3n}} - {{{AJ}_{3n}\left( {1 - {2\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle d_{avg}} + {\frac{1}{2}\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle^{2}d_{avg}^{2}}} \right)}.}}} & (58)\end{matrix}$Thus, the optical density OD_(n) can be expressed to includecontributions to the measured absorption spectrum from changes in watertemperature, changes in filter temperature, and a cross-term resultingfrom water and filter temperature changes.E. Subtraction of System and Temperature Effects from Absorption Data

FIG. 24 illustrates the absorption of water in an exemplary waterregion. The analysis of the absorption data preferably uses a finitenumber of absorption measurements (for example, at the wavelengthsindicated in FIG. 24 by vertical lines) in this wavelength region todetermine the path length, water temperature, filter temperature andcuvette shape.

In certain embodiments, the analysis utilizes four OD measurementswhich, assuming T_(n)=0 and <α_(n)>=<α_(on)>, are expressed as a set oflinear equations to be solved expressed by the following relation:

$\begin{matrix}{\begin{pmatrix}{OD}_{1} \\{OD}_{2} \\{OD}_{3} \\{OD}_{4}\end{pmatrix} = {\begin{pmatrix}\left\langle \alpha_{01} \right\rangle & \left\langle \beta_{1} \right\rangle & \left\langle \gamma_{1} \right\rangle & \left\langle \alpha_{o\; 1} \right\rangle^{2} \\\left\langle \alpha_{02} \right\rangle & \left\langle \beta_{2} \right\rangle & \left\langle \gamma_{2} \right\rangle & \left\langle \alpha_{o\; 2} \right\rangle^{2} \\\left\langle \alpha_{03} \right\rangle & \left\langle \beta_{3} \right\rangle & \left\langle \gamma_{3} \right\rangle & \left\langle \alpha_{o\; 3} \right\rangle^{2} \\\left\langle \alpha_{04} \right\rangle & \left\langle \beta_{4} \right\rangle & \left\langle \gamma_{4} \right\rangle & \left\langle \alpha_{o\; 4} \right\rangle^{2}\end{pmatrix} \cdot {\begin{pmatrix}d_{avg} \\{\Delta\; T_{w}d_{avg}} \\{\Delta\; T_{f}d_{avg}} \\A\end{pmatrix}.}}} & (59)\end{matrix}$The solution of this set of linear equations can provide an initialestimate of the parameters (d_(avg), ΔT_(w), ΔT_(ƒ), A) which are usedto evaluate the non-linear terms (T₁ . . . T₄). The next estimate of(d_(avg), ΔT_(w), ΔT_(ƒ), A) can be found by solving the followingrelation:

$\begin{matrix}{\begin{pmatrix}{{OD}_{1} - T_{1}} \\{{OD}_{2} - T_{2}} \\{{OD}_{3} - T_{3}} \\{{OD}_{4} - T_{4}}\end{pmatrix} = {\begin{pmatrix}\left\langle \alpha_{01} \right\rangle & \left\langle \beta_{1} \right\rangle & \left\langle \gamma_{1} \right\rangle & \left\langle \alpha_{1} \right\rangle^{2} \\\left\langle \alpha_{02} \right\rangle & \left\langle \beta_{2} \right\rangle & \left\langle \gamma_{2} \right\rangle & \left\langle \alpha_{2} \right\rangle^{2} \\\left\langle \alpha_{03} \right\rangle & \left\langle \beta_{3} \right\rangle & \left\langle \gamma_{3} \right\rangle & \left\langle \alpha_{3} \right\rangle^{2} \\\left\langle \alpha_{04} \right\rangle & \left\langle \beta_{4} \right\rangle & \left\langle \gamma_{4} \right\rangle & \left\langle \alpha_{4} \right\rangle^{2}\end{pmatrix} \cdot {\begin{pmatrix}d_{avg} \\{\Delta\; T_{w}d_{avg}} \\{\Delta\; T_{f}d_{avg}} \\A\end{pmatrix}.}}} & (60)\end{matrix}$This process can be repeated until estimates of path length, watertemperature, filter temperature and cuvette non-parallelism (i.e., thedegree to which opposed walls/windows of the sample chamber deviate fromparallel, which is referred to at times as “bowing”) converge.

Measurements using this approach may not deliver the desired accuracyover the entire range of temperature and cuvette/sample chamber shape.Other approaches may be used to yield more stable results. One suchalternative approach is based on rewriting Equations (57) and (58) to beexpressed by the following relations:

$\begin{matrix}{{{OD}_{n} = {{\left\langle \alpha_{on} \right\rangle d_{avg}} + {\left\langle \beta_{n} \right\rangle\Delta\; T_{w}d_{avg}} + {\left\langle \gamma_{n} \right\rangle\Delta\; T_{f}d_{avg}} + {\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle^{2}A} - {\frac{1}{2}d_{avg}^{2}J_{3n}} + S_{n}}},} & (61) \\{S_{n} = {{\left\langle \xi_{n} \right\rangle\Delta\; T_{w}\Delta\; T_{f}d_{avg}} - {{{AJ}_{3n}\left( {1 - {2\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle d_{avg}} + {\frac{1}{2}\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle^{2}d_{avg}^{2}}} \right)}.}}} & (62)\end{matrix}$Rearranging Equation (61) yields the following relation:

$\begin{matrix}{{{{OD}_{n} - {d_{avg}\left\langle \alpha_{on} \right\rangle} + {\frac{1}{2}d_{avg}^{2}J_{3n}} - S_{n}} = {{d_{avg}\left\langle \beta_{n} \right\rangle\Delta\; T_{w}} + {d_{avg}\left\langle \gamma_{n} \right\rangle\Delta\; T_{f}} +}}{\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle^{2}{A.}}} & (63)\end{matrix}$Embodiments in which Equation (63) is used to analyze the absorptiondata are described below.

1. Water Temperature, Filter Temperature, Cuvette Shape Analysis

In certain embodiments, the water temperature, filter temperature, andcuvette shape are analyzed. In such embodiments, the analysis comprises“step 1” in which transmission measurements, filter parameters and waterspectral properties are inputted:

-   -   Transmission measurements (τ₁, τ₂, τ₃, τ₄),    -   Filter curves [ƒ₁(λ), ƒ₂(λ), ƒ₃(λ), ƒ₄(λ)],    -   Filter temperature sensitivities

$\left\lbrack {\frac{d\;\lambda_{1}}{\delta\; T_{f}},\frac{d\;\lambda_{2}}{\delta\; T_{f}},\frac{d\;\lambda_{3}}{\delta\; T_{f}},\frac{d\;\lambda_{4}}{\delta\; T_{f}}} \right\rbrack,$and

-   -   Water spectral properties

$\left\lbrack {{\alpha_{o}(\lambda)},{\beta(\lambda)},\frac{\delta\;{\alpha_{o}(\lambda)}}{\delta\;\lambda},\frac{\delta\;{\beta(\lambda)}}{\delta\;\lambda}} \right\rbrack.$

Certain embodiments of the analysis further comprise “step 2” in whichoptical densities and filter constants are calculated:

${{OD}_{n} = {- {\ln\left( \tau_{n} \right)}}},{\left\langle \alpha_{on} \right\rangle = {\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda} \cdot {f_{n}(\lambda)} \cdot {\alpha_{o}(\lambda)}}}}},{\left\langle \beta_{n} \right\rangle = {\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda} \cdot {f_{n}(\lambda)} \cdot {\beta(\lambda)}}}}},{\left\langle \gamma_{n} \right\rangle = {\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{{\mathbb{d}\lambda} \cdot f_{n}}{(\lambda) \cdot \frac{\delta\;{\alpha_{o}(\lambda)}}{\delta\;\lambda} \cdot \frac{d\;\lambda_{n}}{\delta\; T_{f}}}}}}},{and}$$\left\langle \xi_{n} \right\rangle = {\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{{\mathbb{d}\lambda} \cdot f_{n}}{(\lambda) \cdot \frac{\delta\;{\beta(\lambda)}}{\delta\;\lambda} \cdot {\frac{d\;\lambda_{n}}{\delta\; T_{f}}.}}}}}$

In certain embodiments, the analysis further comprises “step 3” in whichthe non-linear filter terms and cuvette distortion matrix element areestimated using the following relations:

${J_{3n} = {\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda} \cdot {f(\lambda)} \cdot \left( {{\alpha(\lambda)} - \left\langle \alpha_{o} \right\rangle} \right)^{2}}}}},$<α_(n)>²=<α_(on)>², andS_(n)=0.

In certain embodiments, the analysis further comprises “step 4” in whichthe analysis solves for (ΔT_(w), ΔT_(ƒ), A) as a function of path lengthd using (OD₁, OD₂, OD₃) and (OD₂, OD₃, OD₄). The values of (d_(avg),ΔT_(w), ΔT_(ƒ), A) are estimated by finding value of d where solutionsfor (ΔT_(w), ΔT_(ƒ), A) are same for both sets of transmissionmeasurements:

${\begin{pmatrix}{{OD}_{1} - {d\left\langle \alpha_{o\; 1} \right\rangle} + {\frac{1}{2}d^{2}J_{31}} - S_{1}} \\{{OD}_{2} - {d\left\langle \alpha_{o\; 2} \right\rangle} + {\frac{1}{2}d^{2}J_{32}} - S_{2}} \\{{OD}_{3} - {d\left\langle \alpha_{o\; 3} \right\rangle} + {\frac{1}{2}d^{2}J_{33}} - S_{3}}\end{pmatrix} = {\begin{pmatrix}{d\left\langle \beta_{1} \right\rangle} & {d\left\langle \gamma_{1} \right\rangle} & \left\langle \alpha_{1} \right\rangle^{2} \\{d\left\langle \beta_{2} \right\rangle} & {d\left\langle \gamma_{2} \right\rangle} & \left\langle \alpha_{2} \right\rangle^{2} \\{d\left\langle \beta_{3} \right\rangle} & {d\left\langle \gamma_{3} \right\rangle} & \left\langle \alpha_{3} \right\rangle^{2}\end{pmatrix} \cdot \begin{pmatrix}{\Delta\; T_{w}} \\{\Delta\; T_{f}} \\A\end{pmatrix}}},{{{and}\begin{pmatrix}{{OD}_{2} - {d\left\langle \alpha_{o\; 2} \right\rangle} + {\frac{1}{2}d^{2}J_{32}} - S_{2}} \\{{OD}_{3} - {d\left\langle \alpha_{o\; 3} \right\rangle} + {\frac{1}{2}d^{2}J_{33}} - S_{3}} \\{{OD}_{4} - {d\left\langle \alpha_{o\; 4} \right\rangle} + {\frac{1}{2}d^{2}J_{34}} - S_{4}}\end{pmatrix}} = {\begin{pmatrix}{d\left\langle \beta_{2} \right\rangle} & {d\left\langle \gamma_{2} \right\rangle} & \left\langle \alpha_{2} \right\rangle^{2} \\{d\left\langle \beta_{3} \right\rangle} & {d\left\langle \gamma_{3} \right\rangle} & \left\langle \alpha_{3} \right\rangle^{2} \\{d\left\langle \beta_{4} \right\rangle} & {d\left\langle \gamma_{4} \right\rangle} & \left\langle \alpha_{4} \right\rangle^{2}\end{pmatrix} \cdot {\begin{pmatrix}{\Delta\; T_{w}} \\{\Delta\; T_{f}} \\A\end{pmatrix}.}}}$

In certain embodiments, the analysis further comprises “step 5” in whichnew estimates of absorption and non-linear terms are calculated:

$\begin{matrix}{{\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle = {\left\langle \alpha_{on} \right\rangle + {\left\langle \beta_{n} \right\rangle\Delta\; T_{w}} + {\left\langle \gamma_{n} \right\rangle\;\Delta\; T_{f}} + {\left\langle \xi_{n} \right\rangle\;\Delta\; T_{w}\Delta\; T_{f}}}},} \\{{J_{3n} = {\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda} \cdot {f(\lambda)} \cdot \left( {{\alpha(\lambda)} - \left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle} \right)^{2}}}}},{and}} \\{S_{n} = {{\left\langle \xi_{n} \right\rangle\;\Delta\; T_{w}\Delta\; T_{f}d} - {A\;{{J_{3n}\left( {1 - {2\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle\; d} + {\frac{1}{2}\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle^{2}\; d^{2}}} \right)}.}}}}\end{matrix}$In certain embodiments, the analysis further comprises “step 6” in which“step 4” and “step 5” are repeated until the solution converges to adesired accuracy.

2. Water Temperature, Filter Temperature, Parallel Cuvette Analysis

In certain embodiments, the water temperature and filter temperature areanalyzed for a parallel cuvette (i.e., one in which opposed walls of thesample chamber are substantially parallel). In such embodiments, theanalysis comprises “step 1” in which transmission measurements, filterparameters and water spectral properties are inputted:

-   -   Transmission measurements (τ₁, τ₂, τ₃),    -   Filter curves [ƒ₁(λ), ƒ₂(λ), ƒ₃(λ)],    -   Filter temperature sensitivity

$\left\lbrack {\frac{d\;\lambda_{1}}{\delta\; T_{f}},\frac{d\;\lambda_{2}}{\delta\; T_{f}},\frac{d\;\lambda_{3}}{\delta\; T_{f}}} \right\rbrack,$and

-   -   Water spectral properties

$\left\lbrack {{\alpha_{o}(\lambda)},{\beta(\lambda)},\frac{\delta\;{\alpha_{o}(\lambda)}}{\delta\;\lambda},\frac{\delta\;{\beta(\lambda)}}{\delta\lambda}} \right\rbrack.$

Certain embodiments of the analysis further comprise “step 2” in whichoptical densities and filter constants are calculated:

$\begin{matrix}{{{OD}_{n} = {- {\ln\left( \tau_{n} \right)}}},} \\{{\left\langle \alpha_{on} \right\rangle = {\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda} \cdot {f_{n}(\lambda)} \cdot {\alpha_{o}(\lambda)}}}}},} \\{{\left\langle \beta_{n} \right\rangle = {\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda} \cdot {f_{n}(\lambda)} \cdot {\beta(\lambda)}}}}},} \\{{\left\langle \gamma_{n} \right\rangle = {\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda} \cdot {f_{n}(\lambda)} \cdot \frac{\delta\;{\alpha_{o}(\lambda)}}{\delta\;\lambda} \cdot \frac{d\;\lambda_{n}}{\delta\; T_{f}}}}}},{and}} \\{\left\langle \xi_{n} \right\rangle = {\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda} \cdot {f_{n}(\lambda)} \cdot \frac{\delta\;{\beta(\lambda)}}{\delta\;\lambda} \cdot {\frac{d\;\lambda_{n}}{\delta\; T_{f}}.}}}}}\end{matrix}$

In certain embodiments, the analysis further comprises “step 3” in whichthe non-linear filter terms and cuvette distortion matrix element areestimated using the following relations:

${J_{3n} = {\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda} \cdot {f(\lambda)} \cdot \left( {{\alpha(\lambda)} - \left\langle \alpha_{o} \right\rangle} \right)^{2}}}}},$(α_(n))²=(α_(on))², andS_(n)=0.

In certain embodiments, the analysis further comprises “step 4” in whichthe analysis solves for (ΔT_(w), ΔT_(ƒ)) as a function of path length dusing (OD₁, OD₂) and (OD₂, O₃). The values of (d_(avg), ΔT_(w), ΔT_(ƒ))are estimated by finding value of d where solutions for (ΔT_(w), ΔT_(ƒ))are the same for both sets of transmission measurements:

$\begin{matrix}{{\begin{pmatrix}{{OD}_{1} - {d\left\langle \alpha_{o1} \right\rangle} + {\frac{1}{2}d^{2}J_{31}} - S_{1}} \\{{OD}_{2} - {d\left\langle \alpha_{o2} \right\rangle} + {\frac{1}{2}d^{2}J_{32}} - S_{2}}\end{pmatrix} = {\begin{pmatrix}{d\left\langle \beta_{1} \right\rangle} & {d\left\langle \gamma_{1} \right\rangle} \\{d\left\langle \beta_{2} \right\rangle} & {d\left\langle \gamma_{2} \right\rangle}\end{pmatrix} \cdot \begin{pmatrix}{\Delta\; T_{w}} \\{\Delta\; T_{f}}\end{pmatrix}}},{and}} \\{\begin{pmatrix}{{OD}_{2} - {d\left\langle \alpha_{o2} \right\rangle} + {\frac{1}{2}d^{2}J_{32}} - S_{2}} \\{{OD}_{3} - {d\left\langle \alpha_{o3} \right\rangle} + {\frac{1}{2}d^{2}J_{33}} - S_{3}}\end{pmatrix} = {\begin{pmatrix}{d\left\langle \beta_{2} \right\rangle} & {d\left\langle \gamma_{2} \right\rangle} \\{d\left\langle \beta_{3} \right\rangle} & {d\left\langle \gamma_{3} \right\rangle}\end{pmatrix} \cdot {\begin{pmatrix}{\Delta\; T_{w}} \\{\Delta\; T_{f}}\end{pmatrix}.}}}\end{matrix}$

In certain embodiments, the analysis further comprises “step 5” in whichnew estimates of absorption and non-linear terms are calculated:

$\begin{matrix}{{\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle = {\left\langle \alpha_{on} \right\rangle + {\left\langle \beta_{n} \right\rangle\Delta\; T_{w}} + {\left\langle \gamma_{n} \right\rangle\;\Delta\; T_{f}} + {\left\langle \xi_{n} \right\rangle\;\Delta\; T_{w}\Delta\; T_{f}}}},} \\{{J_{3n} = {\frac{1}{N_{n}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda} \cdot {f(\lambda)} \cdot \left( {{\alpha(\lambda)} - \left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle} \right)^{2}}}}},{and}} \\{S_{n} = {{\left\langle \xi_{n} \right\rangle\;\Delta\; T_{w}\Delta\; T_{f}d} - {A\;{{J_{3n}\left( {1 - {2\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle\; d} + {\frac{1}{2}\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle^{2}\; d^{2}}} \right)}.}}}}\end{matrix}$In certain embodiments, the analysis further comprises “step 6” in which“step 4” and “step 5” are repeated until the solution converges to adesired accuracy.F. Contribution to Analyte Concentration Errors by Instrument Factors

Transmission data measured at each wavelength by certain apparatuses aretypically affected by a combination of instrument factors and bloodproperties. The instrument factors include, but are not limited to,filter temperature, cuvette shape, filter characteristics (e.g., centerwavelengths, temperature sensitivity, bandwidth, shape), and detectorand source drift. The blood properties include, but are not limited to,blood temperature, the relative concentrations of the blood componentsand scattering. Before the transmission data are used to calculateanalyte (e.g., glucose) concentration, the instrument factors arepreferably determined and corresponding corrections are preferably madefor each transmission value. As described above in relation totransmission measurements, each of the instrument factors can influencethe transmission of a water-filled cuvette. In certain embodiments, theanalysis can predict the analyte concentration error introduced by theinstrument factors over the expected variation range for the apparatus.

As described above, transmission measurements in the “water region” ofwavelengths can be used to determine the blood's water content withoutconsidering other blood constituents. Once the water content is known,in certain embodiments, the water contribution at each of thewavelengths outside the water region can be calculated and removed. FIG.25 illustrates an exemplary OD spectrum from a blood sample overlaidwith a water reference spectrum in the wavelength range of 4 microns to11 microns. As shown in FIG. 25, the water reference spectrum can befitted to approximate the blood spectrum in a wavelength range ofapproximately 4.7 microns to approximately 5.3 microns. The fitted waterspectrum can then be subtracted from the blood spectrum to produce aneffectively water-free spectrum.

In certain transmission measurement systems, the filters have finitewidth and shape, the cuvettes may or may not be parallel, and thetemperatures of the blood and filters may not be controlled. Thesefactors will cause transmission changes that are not due to bloodcomponent changes or path length changes. If they are not corrected, theanalysis can have corresponding errors in the calculated analyteconcentration (e.g., glucose errors). While each of these instrumentfactors in isolation can result in a corresponding glucose error, inactual systems, the glucose error will be due to a combination of allthe instrument factors.

In certain embodiments, the analysis described above can be used toestimate the magnitude of the glucose error for each instrument factor.The analysis can predict the optical density as a function of cuvetteshape, filter shape, water temperature and filter temperature for awater-filled cuvette. The glucose error can be evaluated using fourwavelengths, as illustrated in FIG. 26. The vertical lines of FIG. 26denote these four wavelengths, two in the water region, one at a glucosereference wavelength (e.g., 8.45 microns) and one at the peak of theglucose absorption (e.g., 9.65 microns). The effects of each instrumentfactor can be studied separately.

In certain embodiments, a method of evaluating the glucose errorcomprises calculating the transmission and optical density (od₁, od₂,od₃, od₄) at each wavelength for a water-filled cuvette with instrumentfactor under study. The method further comprises using the opticaldensity of the two water measurements (od₁, od₂) to determine the watercontent at the glucose reference and measurement wavelengths (λ₃, λ₄).The method further comprises calculating the expected optical density(OD_(3c), OD_(4c)) at the glucose reference and measurement wavelengths.The method further comprises calculating residuals (ΔOD₃, ΔOD₄), whichare the difference between the exact and calculated optical densities atthe glucose reference and measurement wavelengths. The method furthercomprises determining the glucose error by calculating the glucoseconcentration consistent with residual difference (ΔOD₄−ΔOD₃).

As described above, the transmission through a filter for a water-fillednon-parallel cuvette with parallel illumination (e.g., exposed to asubstantially cylindrical energy beam) can be expressed by Equation(20), and the corresponding optical density can be expressed by thefollowing relation:

$\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}{{od}_{n} = {{- \ln}\left( \tau_{n} \right)}} \\{{= {- {\ln\left\lbrack {{\frac{1}{N_{n}} \cdot \frac{1}{2w}}{\int{{\mathbb{d}\lambda}\;{f_{n}(\lambda)}\;{\int_{- w}^{w}{{\mathbb{d}x}\mspace{11mu}{\exp\left\lbrack {{- {\alpha_{n}(\lambda)}}\;{d(x)}} \right\rbrack}}}}}} \right\rbrack}}},}\end{matrix} & (64)\end{matrix}$where

-   -   ƒ_(n)(λ)=filter transmission,    -   N_(n)=filter normalization,    -   d(x)=cuvette path length,    -   ΔT_(w)=water temperature change,    -   ΔT_(ƒ)=filter temperature change, and    -   2w=cuvette width.        As used herein, the above relation is referred to as the “exact        optical density” because it does not include the various        approximations described herein.

As described above, the water absorption adjusted for water and filtertemperature can be expressed by Equation (51). An approximate solutionfor the optical density can be expressed by the following relations:OD _(n)=<α_(on) >d _(avg) +ΔOD _(n), and  (65)

$\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}{{\Delta\;{OD}_{n}} = {{{- \frac{1}{2}}d_{avg}^{2}J_{3n}} + {\left\langle \beta_{n} \right\rangle\Delta\; T_{w}d_{avg}} +}} \\{{{\left\langle \gamma_{n} \right\rangle\;\Delta\; T_{f}d_{avg}} + {\left\langle \alpha_{n} \right\rangle^{2}A} + S_{n}},}\end{matrix} & (66)\end{matrix}$where d_(avg)=average cuvette path length and d(x)=d_(avg)→A=0. InEquations (64), (65), and (66), four instrument factors are specified bythe following parameters:

-   -   ƒ_(n)(λ)=filter function,    -   ΔT_(w)=water temperature change from nominal,    -   ΔT_(ƒ)=filter temperature change from nominal,    -   d(x)=cuvette shape.        In addition, the average absorption through the filter is        represented by <α_(on)>and ΔOD_(n) represents the effects due to        water temperature, filter temperature, filter shape and cuvette        shape.

1. Calculation of the Analyte Contribution Errors

The first four terms in Equation (66) represent the contributions of theinstrument factors to the optical density. Considering each instrumentfactor separately, ΔOD_(n) becomes a function only of that factor. Thisallows the calculation of the glucose sensitivity for each factor andthe evaluation of the accuracy of the approximate solution for theoptical density as compared to the exact optical density. Table 2 showsthe values of each of the four instrument factors for varioussimulations. Each row shows the values of the instrument factors for aparticular simulation and the corresponding value of ΔOD_(n). The filtershape δ(λ_(n)) is a delta function representing an infinitely narrowfilter at λ_(n).

TABLE 2 f_(n)(λ) ΔT_(w) ΔT_(f) d(x) ΔOD_(n) Filter shape f_(n)(λ) 0 0d_(avg) −½d_(avg) ² J_(3n) Water temp δ(λ_(n)) ΔT_(w) 0 d_(avg)<β_(n)>ΔT_(w) d_(avg) Filter temp δ(λ_(n)) 0 ΔT_(f) d_(avg)<γ_(n)>ΔT_(f) d_(avg) Cuvette shape δ(λ_(n)) 0 0 d_(avg) + ε(x) <α_(n)>²A

Each simulation starts by calculating the set of exact optical densities[od₁, od₂, od₃, od₄] using Equation (64) and the instrument factors fromTable 2. For all simulations, the calibration constants are the set[<α₀₁>, <α₀₂>, <α₀₃>, <α₀₄>], the form of which is expressed in Equation(56.1), and the predicted optical densities are expressed in Equation(65).

For the uncorrected case, the calculated path length (d_(c)) can beexpressed using the exact optical densities from the water region andthe calibration constants in the following relation:

$\begin{matrix}{d_{c} = {\frac{{od}_{2} - {od}_{1}}{\left\langle \alpha_{02} \right\rangle - \left\langle \alpha_{01} \right\rangle}.}} & (67)\end{matrix}$

The second two calibration constants can be used to predict the opticaldensities at (λ₃, λ₄) as follows:OD _(3c)=<α_(o3)>·d_(c), and  (68)OD _(4c)=<α_(o4)>·d_(c).  (69)The residuals can be expressed by the following relations:ΔOD ₃ =OD _(3c) −od ₃, and  (70)ΔOD ₄ =OD _(4c) −od ₄.  (71)The glucose error can be expressed by the following relation:

$\begin{matrix}{\mspace{25mu}{{{\Delta\; c_{g}} = {\frac{{\Delta\;{OD}_{4}} - {\Delta\;{OD}_{3}}}{{\Delta\; g_{4}} - {\Delta\; g_{3}}} \cdot \frac{1}{d_{c}}}},}} & (72)\end{matrix}$where (Δg₃, Δg₄) represents the glucose absorption at (λ₃, λ₄).

The glucose error for the corrected case can be determined by making thefollowing transformation:od _(n) →od _(n) −ΔOD _(n),  (73)and repeating the steps outlined in Equations (65) through (72). Thecorrected glucose error is a measure of how accurately the approximateoptical densities given by Equation (65) equal the exact opticaldensities given by Equation (64). It is an indication of the range overwhich the instrument parameter (in this case filter width) can vary andstill be predicted by the approximate equation.

2. Results

Graphs of the uncorrected and corrected glucose error as a function ofcuvette shape parameters, path length, water temperature variation fromnominal, and filter temperature from nominal can be generated using themethod described above. The relative contributions of the variouscuvette shape parameters can be compared to determine which parametershave the larger effect on the resultant glucose error. This analysis candemonstrate which sensitivities provide glucose errors which are toolarge unless corrected for. This analysis underestimates the correctederrors since it does not include cross terms when two or more factorsare present. This analysis can also show whether the approximate opticaldensity expansion agrees with the exact integral solution, that is,whether the higher order terms are needed.

a. Cuvette Shape Sensitivity

FIG. 27 schematically illustrates a model of the cuvette shape, whichcan model the bowing of the cuvette, which can be used in the analysis.In the model, the curvature (Δc) and wedge (Δp) are introduced to aparallel cuvette having a path length (d₀). The curvature is shown asbeing on one side of the cuvette, but the sensitivity is the same as ifthe same curvature is distributed between the top and bottom surfaces.The cuvette width is 2w. Other cuvette shapes may also be modeled.

FIGS. 28A and 28B are graphs of the uncorrected and corrected glucoseerror, respectively, as a function of cuvette shape parameters for afirst set of wavelengths. FIG. 28C is a graph of the distortionparameter corresponding to FIGS. 28A and 28B. FIG. 28D is a graph of theabsorption spectrum with the first set of wavelengths used in thecalculation denoted by vertical lines.

FIGS. 29A and 29B are graphs of the uncorrected and corrected glucoseerror, respectively, as a function of cuvette shape parameters for asecond set of wavelengths. FIG. 29C is a graph of the distortionparameter corresponding to FIGS. 29A and 29B. FIG. 29D is a graph of theabsorption spectrum with the second set of wavelengths used in thecalculation denoted by vertical lines.

b. Filter Shape Sensitivity

FIGS. 30A and 30B are graphs of the uncorrected and corrected glucoseerror, respectively, as a function of path length for different filterbandwidths for a first set of wavelengths. FIG. 30C is a graph of theabsorption spectrum with the first set of wavelengths used in thecalculation denoted by vertical lines. In the calculation, eachwavelength had identical gaussian-shaped filters with the filterbandwidth equal to the full-width-half-maximum (FWHM).

FIGS. 31A and 31B are graphs of the uncorrected and corrected glucoseerror, respectively, as a function of path length for different filterbandwidths for a first set of wavelengths. FIG. 31C is a graph of theabsorption spectrum with the first set of wavelengths used in thecalculation denoted by vertical lines. In the calculation, eachwavelength had identical gaussian-shaped filters with the filterbandwidth equal to the full-width-half-maximum (FWHM).

c. Water Temperature Sensitivity

FIGS. 32A and 32B are graphs of the uncorrected and corrected glucoseerror, respectively, as a function of water temperature variation fromnominal for a first set of wavelengths. FIG. 32C is a graph of theabsorption spectrum with the first set of wavelengths used in thecalculation denoted by vertical lines.

FIGS. 33A and 33B are graphs of the uncorrected and corrected glucoseerror, respectively, as a function of water temperature variation fromnominal for a first set of wavelengths. FIG. 33C is a graph of theabsorption spectrum with the first set of wavelengths used in thecalculation denoted by vertical lines. Water temperature sensitivity isminimum at 5.0 microns.

d. Filter Temperature Sensitivity

FIGS. 34A and 34B are graphs of the uncorrected and corrected glucoseerror, respectively, as a function of filter temperature variation fromnominal for a first set of wavelengths. The legend of FIG. 34A shows thefilter temperature sensitivity as a percentage of the center wavelengthper degree Celsius. All filters in the calculation had the sametemperature sensitivity. FIG. 34C is a graph of the absorption spectrumwith the first set of wavelengths used in the calculation denoted byvertical lines.

FIGS. 35A and 35B are graphs of the uncorrected and corrected glucoseerror, respectively, as a function of filter temperature variation fromnominal for a second set of wavelengths. The legend of FIG. 35A showsthe filter temperature sensitivity as a percentage of the centerwavelength per degree Celsius. All filters in the calculation had thesame temperature sensitivity. FIG. 35C is a graph of the absorptionspectrum with the second set of wavelengths used in the calculationdenoted by vertical lines.

Further information can be found in U.S. Patent Application PublicationNo. 2003/0090649, published May 15, 2003, entitled “Reagent-Less WholeBlood Glucose Meter,” U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/319,409, filedDec. 12, 2002, entitled “Pathlength-Independent Methods For OpticallyDetermining Material Composition,” U.S. patent application Ser. No.10/366,540, filed Feb. 12, 2003, entitled “Method Of Determining AnAnalyte Concentration In A Sample From An Absorption Spectrum,” and U.S.Provisional Patent No. 60/463,133, filed Apr. 15, 2003, entitled “MethodOf Determining Analyte Concentration In A Blood Sample In A CuvetteUsing Infrared Transmission Data.” The entire contents of these patentapplications is hereby incorporated herein in its entirety by thisreference and is made a part of this specification.

V. Performance

The various embodiments of the analyte detection system 10 disclosedabove have been found to facilitate highly and consistently accuratemeasurements of the concentrations of various analytes, such as glucose,in a material sample S, such as whole blood. Both the structure of theanalyte detection system 10 and the various methods of operationdisclosed herein contribute to the high performance and accuracy of theanalyte detection system 10. Generally, increasing accuracy will beobserved by employing one of the disclosed embodiments of the analytedetection system 10 with as many of the above-described methods aspossible. However, no one embodiment, component or method is consideredessential.

High measurement accuracy is promoted by the use of any of the methodsdisclosed above for (i) substantially removing the contribution of oneor more chemical species other than the analyte of interest to theoverall absorbance of the material sample under analysis; (ii)compensating for variability in optical pathlength through the materialsample; (iii) substantially removing the contribution of the sampleelement to the overall absorbance of the sample element+material samplesystem; (iv) adjusting for variability in the temperature of any waterin the material sample; (v) adjusting for variability in the temperatureof the optical filter(s) of the analyte detection system; (vi) adjustingfor variations in the physical structure among the sample elements; and(vii) adjusting for time-dependent variance in the intensity of theradiation source. Of course, high measurement accuracy is promoted bythe use of any combination of these methods.

Accordingly, certain embodiments of the analyte detection system 10advantageously facilitates measurement of the concentration of ananalyte, for example glucose, within a material sample, for examplewhole blood, blood components or processed blood. Such measurementspreferably have a standard error (with a 95% confidence level) less thanabout 30 mg/dL, less than about 20 mg/dL, less than about 15 mg/dL, lessthan about 10 mg/dL, or equal to about 8.2 mg/dL, in variousembodiments, when compared to corresponding measurements of the materialsample's “actual” analyte concentration (as measured by a conventionallaboratory-grade analyzer such as the type manufactured by YellowSprings Instruments, Inc. of Yellow Springs, Ohio). In still otherembodiments, the standard error is (when assessed under the sameconditions) between about 30 mg/dL and about 8.2 mg/dL, between about 20mg/dL and about 8.2 mg/dL, between about 15 mg/dL and about 8.2 mg/dL,or between about 10 mg/dL and about 8.2 mg/dL.

In some embodiments, the analyte detection system 10 performs suchanalyte-concentration measurements with accuracies corresponding to aRMS average error (when compared to “actual” measurements taken asdiscussed above) less than about 30 mg/dL, less than about 20 mg/dL,less than about 15 mg/dL, less than about 10 mg/dL, or equal to about8.0 mg/dL. In still other embodiments, the RMS average error is (whenassessed under the same conditions) between about 30 mg/dL and about 8.0mg/dL, between about 20 mg/dL and about 8.0 mg/dL, between about 15mg/dL and about 8.0 mg/dL, or between about 10 mg/dL and about 8.0mg/dL.

The analyte detection system 10 achieves some or all of the aboveaccuracy measures with sample analysis times which do not exceed 45seconds or 30 seconds, in various embodiments. As used herein, “analysistime” is a broad term and is used in its ordinary sense and includes,without limitation, the time period between (i) the first receipt ofdata from the material sample by the analyte detection system and (ii)the last receipt of data from the material sample by the analytedetection system.

The overall accuracy of embodiments of the analyte detection system 10and of the methods for, inter alia, determining the concentration ofanalyte(s) in a sample independent of optical pathlength, as describedabove, alone or in combination, advantageously facilitate the use ofsample elements that deviate from a specified or expected pathlengththrough the sample chamber. Previous conventional analyte detectionsystems and methods required precisely-constructed, relatively expensivesample elements to tightly control the optical pathlength through thesample chamber. By employing an embodiment of the analyte detectionsystem 10 as disclosed herein, and/or the disclosed methods for, interalia, determining the concentration of analyte(s) in a sampleindependent of optical pathlength, large numbers of measurements ofanalyte (e.g., blood glucose) concentrations can be facilitatedrelatively inexpensively by manufacturing or otherwise providing arelatively large quantity (for example, 1,000 or more) of sampleelements with a relatively wide variation in pathlength (from sampleelement to sample element). Various embodiments of the disclosed devicesand methods therefore make optical detection of blood analyteseconomical for use by everyday people, such as outpatient diabetics whoneed to self-monitor their blood glucose levels. These sample elementswhich vary in pathlength can be employed with embodiments of systems andmethods described herein to measure analyte concentrations on a largescale without substantial losses of accuracy among the individualmeasurements. In one embodiment, these analyte-concentrationmeasurements taken with some or all of the quantity of sample elementsyield clinically acceptable accuracy. (As used herein, the term“clinically acceptable accuracy” is a broad term and is used in itsordinary sense and includes, without limitation, (i) sufficient accuracyto meet requirements imposed by relevant regulatory authorities and/ormedical practitioners; and/or (ii) sufficient accuracy to provide asatisfactory diagnostic result for device users.) In another embodiment,these analyte-concentrations measurements taken with some or all of thequantity of sample elements yield high accuracy as expressed by any ofthe measures of accuracy detailed above. In one embodiment, the analyteconcentration measurements are made by employing any one or combinationof the embodiments of sample elements as disclosed herein. In otherembodiments, the sample elements employed may simply comprise a samplechamber defined by first and second walls, at least one of which issubstantially transmissive of infrared radiation, wherein the sampleelements have substantially uniform external dimensions andsubstantially uniform sample chamber volume.

In various embodiments, the sample elements can vary from a specified,expected, or mean pathlength by more than +/−1 micron, more than +/−2microns, more than +/−4 microns, more than +/−5 microns, more than +/−8microns, or by +/−10 microns. In other embodiments, the sample elementscan vary from the specified/expected/mean pathlength by between +/−1micron and +/−10 microns, between +/−2 microns and +/−10 microns,between +/−4 microns and +/−10 microns, between +/−5 microns and +/−10microns, or between +/−8 microns and +/−10 microns. In still otherembodiments, the quantity of sample elements can be characterized by astandard deviation in optical pathlength. In one such embodiment, thestandard deviation is greater than or equal to about 0.256 microns. Sucha standard deviation equates to a tolerance of greater than or equal to+/−1.0 microns where: (i) the pathlength errors are normally distributedwith a mean error of zero microns; (ii) erroneous pathlengths which aresmaller than a specified or expected pathlength are given a negativesense and erroneous pathlengths larger than a specified or expectedpathlength are given a positive sense; and (iii) substantially 100% ofthe sample elements in the quantity are to fall within the statedtolerance. In other embodiments, the standard deviation is greater thanor equal to about 0.512 microns, greater than or equal to about 1.024microns, greater than or equal to about 1.280 microns, or greater thanor equal to about 2.048 microns, corresponding to pathlength tolerancesof greater than or equal to +/−2.0, 4.0, 5.0, or 8.0 microns, under theabove-stated statistical conditions. In still other embodiments, thestandard deviation is about 2.560 microns, corresponding to a pathlengthtolerance of +/−about 10.0 microns, under the above-stated statisticalconditions. In various other embodiments, the standard deviation isbetween 0.256 microns and 2.560 microns, between 0.512 microns and 2.560microns, between 1.024 microns and 2.560 microns, between 1.280 micronsand 2.560 microns, or between 2.048 microns and 2.560 microns.

In still other embodiments, the quantity of sample elements can becharacterized by a standard deviation in optical pathlength, thestandard deviation selected to implement a pathlength tolerance ofgreater than or equal to +/−1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 5.0, or 8.0 microns, or toimplement a pathlength tolerance equal to about +/−10.0 microns, underthe statistical conditions which prevail in the quantity of sampleelements, and in light of the proportion (substantially 100%, forexample, or some proportion less than substantially 100%) of sampleelements which is desired to fall within the applicable pathlengthtolerance. Alternatively, the quantity of sample elements can becharacterized by a standard deviation in optical pathlength, thestandard deviation being selected to implement a pathlength tolerancebetween (i) any of +/−1.0/2.0/4.0/5.0/8.0 microns and (ii) +/−10.0microns, under the statistical conditions which prevail in the quantityof sample elements, and in light of the proportion (substantially 100%,for example, or some proportion less than substantially 100%) of sampleelements which is desired to fall within the applicable pathlengthtolerance. In any of the embodiments described herein, the standarddeviation can comprise a population standard deviation within thequantity of sample elements, or a sample standard deviation measuredamong a subset of the quantity of sample elements. In addition, in anyof the embodiments described herein, analyte-concentration measurementstaken with some or all of the quantity of sample elements yieldclinically acceptable accuracy. In another embodiment,analyte-concentration measurements taken with some or all of thequantity of sample elements yield high accuracy as expressed by any ofthe measures of accuracy detailed above.

As used herein with reference to a sample element having a samplechamber defined by opposed walls/windows, “optical pathlength” (or,alternatively, “pathlength”) is a broad term and is used in its ordinarysense and includes, without limitation, the distance through the samplechamber from the inner surface of one wall/window to the inner surfaceof the opposing wall/window, as measured along (or parallel to) theoptical axis of an energy beam passed through the sample chamber whenthe sample element is employed with a suitable analyte detection system.Where the pathlength varies within the sample chamber, the pathlength ofthe sample element in question may comprise an average pathlength. Asused herein, “expected optical pathlength” (or, alternatively, “expectedpathlength”) is a broad term and is used in its ordinary sense andincludes, without limitation, (i) a pathlength which has been recordedin the memory of a detection system for use in computing analyteconcentrations; (ii) a pathlength specified for use in the detectionsystem or class(es) of detection system(s) in question; and/or (iii) apathlength at or near the center of a pathlength tolerance rangespecified for the detection system or class(es) of detection system(s)in question.

The overall accuracy of the analyte detection system 10 as describedabove and the methods for compensating for variability in opticalpathlength through the material sample, alone or in combination,advantageously facilitate the use of sample elements wherein the windowsthat define the sample chamber deviate from a parallel orientation withrespect to each other, or wherein one or both windows is nonplanar (dueto being bowed or otherwise curved, or bent). Accordingly, certainembodiments described herein facilitate the use of a sample element(such as, but not limited to, the various embodiments disclosed above)with windows that define a sample chamber therebetween but deviate froma parallel orientation with respect to each other by more than about 1micron. In further embodiments, the degree of deviation from parallelcan be more than 2 microns, more than 4 microns, or can be about 8microns. In still other embodiments, the degree of deviation fromparallel can be between about 1 micron and about 8 microns, betweenabout 2 microns and about 8 microns, or between about 4 microns andabout 8 microns. In some embodiments, the degree of deviation fromparallel comprises an average deviation from parallel.

Other embodiments facilitate the use of a sample element (such as, butnot limited to, the various embodiments disclosed above) with at leastone window that defines a sample chamber, wherein the window deviatesfrom planarity by more than about 1 micron. In further embodiments, thedegree of deviation from planarity can be more than 2 microns, more than4 microns, or can be about 8 microns. In still other embodiments, thedegree of deviation from planarity can be between about 1 micron andabout 8 microns, between about 2 microns and about 8 microns, or betweenabout 4 microns and about 8 microns. In some embodiments, the degree ofdeviation from planarity comprises an average deviation from planarity.

Where a sample element comprises two or more sample chambers, all of thepreceding description relating to variation in optical pathlength,window planarity, etc. may apply to one, some or all of the samplechambers of the sample element in question.

Accordingly, the detection system 10 is configured to achieveexceptional accuracy with sample elements that are within the preferredpathlength design tolerance and have windows which are substantiallyplanar and parallel. Additionally, the detection system 10 is configuredto achieve adequate or even exceptional accuracy with problematic sampleelements, like those with windows which are less planar or parallel, orthat do not conform to the preferred pathlength design tolerance. In anyof these embodiments of the sample element, an analyte-concentrationmeasurement taken with the sample element yields clinically acceptableaccuracy, and/or high accuracy as expressed by any of the accuracymeasures detailed above.

While preferred embodiments of this invention have been disclosedherein, those skilled in the art will appreciate that changes andmodifications may be made therein without departing from the spirit andscope of the invention as defined in the appended claims.

1. A method of determining an analyte concentration in a sample, thesample comprising the analyte and a substance, the method comprising:providing absorption data of the sample; providing reference absorptiondata of the substance; calculating a substance contribution of theabsorption data, wherein calculating the substance contributioncomprises scaling the reference absorption data by multiplying thereference absorption data by a scaling factor, the scaling factorallowing for calculation of a pathlength-independent quality;subtracting the substance contribution from the absorption data of thesample, thereby providing corrected absorption data of the analytesubstantially free of a contribution from the substance; using thecorrected absorption data to calculate analyte concentration in thesample; and providing the analyte concentration to a user.
 2. The methodof claim 1, wherein providing the absorption data of the samplecomprises: providing transmittance data of the sample; and determiningthe absorption data from the transmittance data.
 3. The method of claim2, wherein providing the transmittance data of the sample comprises:transmitting at least a portion of an infrared signal through thesample, the infrared signal comprising a plurality of wavelengths; andmeasuring the portion of the infrared signal transmitted through thesample as a function of wavelength.
 4. The method of claim 3, whereinproviding the transmittance data further comprises placing the sample ina cuvette.
 5. The method of claim 2, wherein the sample comprises blood.6. The method of claim 5, wherein the analyte comprises glucose, and theselected transmittance wavelength range comprises wavelengths at whichthe transmittance data is dominated by water transmittance.
 7. Themethod of claim 2, wherein the sample comprises plasma.
 8. The method ofclaim 7, wherein the analyte comprises glucose, and the selectedtransmittance wavelength range comprises wavelengths at which thetransmittance data is dominated by water transmittance.
 9. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the substance comprises water.
 10. The method of claim1, wherein the substance interferes with determining the analyteconcentration.
 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the sample furthercomprises a second substance which interferes with determining theanalyte concentration to a lesser extent than does the substance, themethod further comprising calculating a second substance contribution ofthe absorption data and subtracting the second substance contributionfrom the absorption data, thereby providing twice-corrected absorptiondata substantially free of contributions from the substance and from thesecond substance.
 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the referenceabsorption data is corrected for temperature-dependent effects.
 13. Amethod of determining an analyte concentration in a sample, the samplecomprising the analyte and a substance, the method comprising: providingabsorption data of the sample; providing reference absorption data ofthe substance; calculating a substance contribution of the absorptiondata, wherein calculating the substance contribution comprises scalingthe reference absorption data by multiplying the reference absorptiondata by a scaling factor; subtracting the substance contribution fromthe absorption data of the sample, thereby providing correctedabsorption data of the analyte substantially free of a contribution fromthe substance, wherein the reference absorption data is corrected forwavelength-dependent nonlinearities; and storing the correctedabsorption data in a memory.
 14. The method of claim 13, wherein thesample is contained within a sample element and the wavelength-dependentnonlinearities are generated by scattering from the sample element. 15.The method of claim 13, wherein the sample is contained within a sampleelement and the wavelength-dependent nonlinearities are generated byfringing from the sample element.
 16. The method of claim 1, whereinscaling the reference absorption data utilizes at least two wavelengthranges.
 17. The method of claim 1, wherein the sample comprises a secondsubstance, and the method further comprises subtracting a secondcontribution corresponding to the second substance from the correctedabsorption data, thereby providing twice-corrected absorption datasubstantially free of contributions from the substance and from thesecond substance.
 18. The method of claim 17, wherein subtracting thesecond contribution comprises: providing second reference absorptiondata corresponding to the second substance; scaling the second referenceabsorption data by multiplying the second reference absorption data by asecond scaling factor; and subtracting the scaled second referenceabsorption data from the corrected absorption data, thereby providingthe twice-corrected absorption data.
 19. The method of claim 18, whereinthe second substance comprises a whole blood protein.
 20. The method ofclaim 18, wherein the second substance comprises components of aboundary layer between water and a whole blood protein.
 21. The methodof claim 18, wherein the second substance comprises urea or lactate. 22.The method of claim 17, further comprising fitting the twice-correctedabsorption data with analyte spectral data, thereby yielding ameasurement of the analyte concentration in the sample.
 23. The methodof claim 22, wherein the twice-corrected absorption data is fitted withreference analyte spectral data.
 24. A method of providing measurementsof constituents in a sample using infrared (IR) spectroscopy, the methodcomprising: providing absorption data of the sample, wherein providingabsorption data comprises: placing the sample in a cuvette having ashape; passing IR radiation through a filter having a finite width;irradiating the cuvette with the IR radiation; and detecting a fractionof the IR radiation transmitted through the cuvette and the sample;correcting the absorption data for a non-analyte contribution to theabsorption data, wherein the non-analyte contribution is from the finitewidth of the filter; and providing the corrected absorption data to auser.
 25. A method of providing measurements of constituents in a sampleusing infrared (IR) spectroscopy, the method comprising: providingabsorption data of the sample, wherein providing absorption datacomprises: placing the sample in a cuvette having a shape; passing IRradiation through a filter having a finite width; irradiating thecuvette with the IR radiation; and detecting a fraction of the IRradiation transmitted through the cuvette and the sample; correcting theabsorption data for a non-analyte contribution to the absorption data,wherein the non-analyte contribution is from the shape of the cuvette;and storing the corrected absorption data in a memory.
 26. The method ofclaim 25, wherein the sample comprises blood.
 27. The method of claim25, wherein the sample comprises plasma.
 28. A method of using infrared(IR) spectroscopy to determine a ratio of an analyte volume to the totalvolume of a sample comprising the analyte, a first substance, and asecond substance, the method comprising: providing absorption data fromthe sample for a first set of wavelengths in a wavelength region where afirst-substance absorption dominates; calculating a first quantity equalto the product of a first-substance volume concentration and a pathlength of the sample; providing absorption data from the sample for asecond set of wavelengths in a wavelength region where thefirst-substance absorption and a second-substance absorption dominate;calculating a second quantity equal to the product of a second-substancevolume concentration and the path length of the sample; providingabsorption data from the sample for a third set of wavelengths in awavelength region where the first-substance absorption, thesecond-substance absorption, and an analyte absorption dominate;calculating a third quantity equal to the product of an analyte volumeconcentration and the path length of the sample; calculating a ratio ofthe third quantity divided by the sum of the first quantity, the secondquantity, and the third quantity to achieve a pathlength-independentquantity; and storing the ratio in a memory.
 29. The method of claim 28,wherein the analyte comprises glucose.
 30. The method of claim 28,wherein the first substance comprises water.
 31. The method of claim 28,wherein the second substance comprises hematocrit soup.
 32. The methodof claim 28, wherein the second substance comprises hemoglobin.
 33. Themethod of claim 28, wherein the second substance comprises red bloodcells.
 34. A method of determining non-analyte contributions toabsorption data from a sample, the method comprising: (a) inputtingtransmission measurements, filter parameters, and water spectralproperties; (b) calculating optical densities and filter constants; (c)estimating non-linear filter terms and cuvette distortion matrixelements; (d) solving for a temperature change as a function of the pathlength; and (e) calculating new estimates of absorption and non-linearterms.
 35. The method of claim 34, further comprising repeating (d) and(e) until the solution converges to a desired accuracy.
 36. The methodof claim 34, wherein the sample comprises blood.
 37. The method of claim34, wherein the sample comprises plasma.
 38. A method of determiningnon-analyte contributions to absorption data from a sample, the methodcomprising: (a) inputting transmission measurements, filter parameters,and water spectral properties; (b) calculating optical densities andfilter constants; (c) estimating non-linear filter terms and cuvettedistortion matrix elements; (d) solving for a temperature change as afunction of the path length; and (e) calculating new estimates ofabsorption and non-linear terms.
 39. The method of claim 38, furthercomprising repeating (d) and (e) until the solution converges to adesired accuracy.
 40. A method of evaluating analyte concentrationerrors in absorption data from a sample, the method comprising:calculating transmission and optical densities at four wavelengths for awater-filled cuvette, the four wavelengths comprising two wavelengthsdominated by absorption by water, an analyte reference wavelength, and ameasurement wavelength; using the optical densities to determine thewater content at the analyte reference wavelength and the measurementwavelength; calculating expected optical density values at the analytereference wavelength and the measurement wavelength; calculatingresiduals between the exact and calculated optical densities at theanalyte reference wavelength and the measurement wavelength; determiningthe analyte concentration error by calculating the analyte concentrationconsistent with the difference between the residuals at the analytereference wavelength and the measurement wavelength; and storing theanalyte concentration error in a memory.
 41. The method of claim 40,wherein the sample comprises blood.
 42. The method of claim 40, whereinthe sample comprises plasma.
 43. The method of claim 40, wherein theanalyte comprises glucose.